Organizing language - A Systemic Functional Introduction - Analysing English Grammar

Analysing English Grammar: A Systemic Functional Introduction (2012)

Chapter 6: Organizing language

6.1 Introduction

There is no more basic role for the clause than that of creating text. Every clause is either constitutive of a text or part of a larger text. Focusing on the clause in isolation, as has been the case for the previous two chapters, has its advantages since it allows the analyst to focus on the meanings that this unit is able to express. The textual metafunction is different, in many respects, from the other two metafunctions in that its meaning spans across clause boundaries and is fundamental in the creation of text. Whereas the experiential metafunction allows the speaker to represent his or her experience and the interpersonal metafunction enables interaction, as Halliday (1994: xiii) explains, the textual metafunction ‘breathes relevance into the other two’. In focusing on textual meaning, this chapter marks a shift towards text but it does so nevertheless from the perspective of the clause.

6.1.1 Goals and outline of the chapter

This chapter introduces the textual metafunction and the main elements of the clause that express textual meaning. Within the clause, the main resource for creating text is referred to as Theme, as will be discussed below. Therefore, the goal here is to show how to recognize Theme in a variety of different clauses and to understand how it contributes to the creation of text. Theme will be discussed in terms of its function and its relation to the other two main strands of meaning.

In addition to Theme, other textual resources relating Theme and text will be presented such as thematic progression, cohesive reference and ellipsis. Throughout the chapter, various texts and examples will be used to illustrate the textual metafunction as viewed from the clause.

This chapter is limited to an introductory presentation of textual meaning and, as such, there is insufficient space to explore the sometimes thorny issues that surround Theme and what it means for an element of the clause to be Theme. Suggested readings around this topic are given in the section on further reading, which will offer a useful starting point for those wanting more detail.

6.2 A textual view of the clause

The textual metafunction is the strand of meaning which is most inherently associated to the concept of text. Textual meaning considers the clause as message, and its main function is that of creating text (Halliday, 1978: 48). But what is text? How can we recognize it? It is tempting to say simply that you will know one when you see one, but that’s not very satisfying. Text is very difficult to define because it does not have identifiable boundaries, in contrast to a word or a morpheme, or even a larger structural unit such as the nominal group. Texts vary in length and in structure. For example, an email can be thought of as a text but so can a university lecture or a conversation or a book.

The etymology of ‘text’1 offers a helpful metaphor for understanding the meaning of text as it will be used in this chapter. The word came into the English language from the Old French ‘texte’, which was derived from the Latin nominal form ‘textus’, which meant literally ‘that which is woven’. ‘Textus’ itself originated from the Latin verb stem ‘texere’, meaning ‘to weave’. With this metaphor, speakers are language weavers and, as part of the language system, they have available to them a variety of resources for weaving their texts. This chapter will focus on some of the main resources available to speakers for creating text.

In their seminal work on cohesion in English, Halliday and Hasan (1976: 2) use the notion of texture to define text: ‘a text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text. It derives this texture from the fact that it functions as a unity with respect to its environment.’ In this view, there should be identifiable metaphorical threads that hold the text together; these are cohesive devices in Halliday and Hasan’s terms.

6.2.1 On Theme

Irrespective of the experience represented in the clause or the interactive intentions it expresses, the speaker ultimately has to order what he or she is going to say; something has to be said first and whatever is left to be said has to follow in a particular order. This was seen in the invented examples given in Chapter 1, which are repeated below in (1) to (3) for ease of reference.The content and mood in each case is very similar; they express approximately the same experience and with a similar amount of modality. What is most significantly different in each case is how each clause begins. In (1), the Actor/Subject element is first, whereas in (2) it is the Beneficiary/Subject. In clause (3), a circumstance/adjunct begins the clause. These examples have no context since they were invented simply to illustrate a point. However, we would expect to find that in a naturally occurring text the thematic elements of the clause would be motivated by the speaker’s method of weaving the text and the relevance that he or she intends to convey. In other words, close examination of the text and context should normally reveal the role Theme has in creating text for the speaker.

(1) Kev gave me the new Jamie Oliver recipe book for my birthday

(2) I was given the new Jamie book for my birthday

(3) For my birthday, Kev gave me the new Jamie book

In English, the initial position of the clause is significant for a variety of reasons. For example, it often introduces the topic about which something is being said, it may indicate the relevance of the clause to the surrounding text, it may orient the message in a particular way, or it may mark a transition in the text. This is not to say that the thematic elements of the clause are more important than the rest of the clause but rather that they contribute directly and in a pivotal sense to the creation of text.

Within the textual metafunction, the clause is considered to have two main functional elements: Theme and Rheme. Theme is defined by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 64) as ‘the point of departure of the message . . . that which locates and orients the clause within its context’. Within the clause, Theme indicates the clausal element that the speaker has selected as the starting point; a metaphoric peg on which to hang the message. The Rheme of the clause (all that is not Theme) constitutes the message. The relevance of Theme becomes significant when it is viewed within the larger context of the text and not only from the perspective of the clause, which is the view presented in section 6.6.

In comparison with the other two metafunctions, we have seen that the clause most frequently begins with a participant in experiential meaning and with Subject in interpersonal meaning. Therefore Theme will most often conflate with the participant/Subject element of the clause, as illustrated in examples (1) and (2) above. When this is the case, there is a core concentration of meaning in the clause when the functions of participant, Subject and Theme align on the same structural unit. This is not always the case, as will be discussed in the next section.

6.2.2 Thematic status

It is generally accepted that Theme is selected from the speaker’s perspective (i.e. what is relevant to the speaker). As stated above, the Theme element is most commonly conflated with the Subject of the clause and is expressed by a unit that will also have a participant role in the experiential strand of meaning. When this happens, the Theme is said to be unmarked because this is the expected or default case. Theme is said to be marked when it is not the Subject of the clause (i.e. a circumstance), as is the case in example (3) above. There are differences in what constitutes an unmarked Theme selection amongst the different mood types, as will be shown in section 6.3.

In order to illustrate the various ways in which Theme can be expressed, two texts from earlier in the book will be compared in terms of Theme. The first text, from Chapter 1, is a short personal email and the second, from Chapter 4, is an excerpt from the Air Canada safety report. The main significant difference between the two texts is that in the first text the Theme in each clause is conflated with the Subject of the clause and in the second text this only happens in one clause.

The Themes in Text 6.1, given in Table 6.1, are expressed by personal pronouns except in clause (7) where it is expressed by a personal name. In each of these clauses the Theme is conflated with the Subject of the clause, as shown in Table 6.1. In contrast, the Themes in Text 6.2 vary considerably in terms of the unit which serves to express this meaning. Unlike Text 6.1, the Themes are not conflated with Subject except for clause (14) as shown in Table 6.2.


Text 6.1 Personal email

We’ll be going to Scotland from March 30 to April 2nd. We’ll go to London April 14th. It’s a nice day here too. John has taken Tom to the dentist for a check-up, we’ll see if he agrees to open his mouth!!



Text 6.2 Audio and caption script for high altitude emergencies for the general public

In a high altitude emergency, an oxygen mask will drop in front of you from the panel above. Place the mask over your mouth and nose, straighten out the strap, and pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face. After you are wearing it securely, a tug on the hose will start the oxygen flow. It makes sense to put your own mask on first, before helping others.


Table 6.1: List of Themes for Text 6.1


Theme

Rheme

(4)

We

’ll be going to Scotland from March 30 to April 2nd.

(5)

We

’ll go to London April 14th.

(6)

It

’s a nice day here too.

(7)

John

has taken Tom to the dentist for a check-up,

(8)

we

’ll see if he agrees to open his mouth!!


Table 6.2: List of Themes for Text 6.2


Theme

Rheme

(9)

In a high altitude emergency,

an oxygen mask will drop in front of you from the panel above.

(10)

Place

the mask over your mouth and nose,

(11)

straighten out

the strap,

(12)

and pull

the strap to be sure it is tight on your face.

(13)

After you are wearing it securely,

a tug on the hose will start the oxygen flow.

(14)

It

makes sense to put your own mask on first, before helping others.


In clauses (9) and (13) the Subject of each clause is expressed but it is not the initial element of the clause since there is a circumstantial adjunct before the Subject. In these clauses, the Theme is marked. The Themes for clauses (10), (11), and (12) will be discussed in section 6.3, which considers the relationship between Theme and Mood.

The brief analysis of Theme in these two texts illustrates that texts may differ considerably in terms of the ways in which Theme is expressed. More detail about Theme will be given in section 6.4, where the three types of Theme will be explained. Following this, section 6.5 introduces several special thematic constructions which affect the textual meaning of the clause.

6.3 Theme and Mood

Theme is identified by default as the first functional element of the clause (e.g. Subject) and any other items which may occur before it. However, as shown in Chapter 5, the organization of the clause is different for different mood types. The nature of how mood is expressed in English relies not only on the presence of Subject and Finite elements but in how they are organized. Consequently, what can normally appear first in a clause is determined by the mood structure of the clause. This is illustrated in the invented examples (15) to (17), where the same clause is re-expressed in each mood type.

(15) Kev gave me the new Jamie Oliver recipe book for my birthday

(16) Did Kev give me the new Jamie book for my birthday?

(17) (you) Give me the new Jamie book!

As these three clauses show, the expected onset of the clause is largely determined by mood due to the relationship between Subject and Finite. However, this has implications for the thematic structure of the clause.

In order to consider Theme in each of the three main mood types, a short text will be examined. Text 6.3 is an excerpt from a personal email and it includes all three mood types. The clause list from this text is given in Table 6.3.


Text 6.3 Excerpt from a personal email (1999)

I sent Steven a little note and some pages from the Christmas catalogue, but don’t tell him as he’ll be looking for it every day and I don’t know how long it will take. It’s just a letter. By the way did you ever pay that dollar to the post office? Do you want me to send that Insurance letter to you? Have you heard from Suzanne? Roger and Joce are gone to Marathon.


Table 6.3: Clause listing for Text 6.3


Clause

Mood

(18) I sent Steven a little note and some pages from the Christmas catalogue,

Declarative

(19) but don’t tell him

Imperative

(20) as he’ll be looking for it every day

Declarative

(21) and I don’t know how long it will take.

Declarative

(22) It’s just a letter.

Declarative

(23) By the way did you ever pay that dollar to the post office?

Interrogative

(24) Do you want me to send that Insurance letter to you?

Interrogative

(25) Have you heard from Suzanne?

Interrogative

(26) Roger and Joce are gone to Marathon.

Declarative


As Table 6.3 shows, most of the clauses in Text 6.3 are expressed in declarative mood but there are also several interrogative clauses and one imperative clause. The analysis of textual meaning, as it is presented here, is based on an understanding of both experiential and interpersonal meaning. This means that, from the analyst’s perspective, knowing the mood and the transitivity analysis is key to understanding textual meaning. The clauses from this text will be grouped by mood type and then discussed in terms of Theme in the next three sections.

In this section, the analyses of the clauses will be presented using box diagrams (see Chapter 1) rather than tree diagrams. This is for two reasons. The first is that the box diagrams tend to show the alignment of the various strands of meaning quite clearly. The second is that they are much easier to present since tree diagrams can take up time and space. However, the box diagrams are less informative than the tree diagrams in many respects and specifically the ease of readability is at the cost of detail in the analysis. Ideally the analysis would be presented using both tree diagrams and box diagrams, as will be shown in section 6.6 below.

6.3.1 Declarative mood

Declarative mood is perhaps the most common mood structure. As shown in Figure 6.1, these clauses often begin with the Subject but in some cases an adjunct of one type or another will begin the clause. Although there are some adjuncts in this text, they do not occur at the onset of the clause. However, it is clear from the tables of analysis given below that there are some thematic items which occur before the Subject and these will be explained in section 6.4. For now, they will simply be labelled as Theme along with the Subject.

Figure 6.1 Three-strand analysis of the declarative clauses from Text 6.3

6.3.2 Interrogative mood

The interrogative mood is primarily recognized by the inverted organization of the Subject and Finite elements, as was shown in Chapter 5. Consequently, the Finite element will always precede the Subject in clauses expressing interrogative mood. This means that the Finite element will have thematic value in these clauses and be considered part of Theme. Examples of Theme in interrogative mood are given in examples (23) to (25) (see Figure 6.2). In these cases Theme includes everything from the beginning of the clause up to and including the Subject. The Theme is unmarked in each of these examples since there is no preceding experiential element. More detail about the various elements within Theme and the different types of Theme will be given in section 6.4.

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.2 Three-strand analysis of the interrogative clauses from Text 6.3

Not all interrogatives begin with a Finite element. The interrogative mood system, as shown in Chapter 5, has two main options: wh- interrogative and yes/no interrogative. Within the textual metafunction, there is a significant difference between these two in terms of what appears in Theme position. As shown above, the Finite element is always thematized in unmarked Theme. However, since it does not express any experiential function, it is not considered to have the full meaning of Theme in the sense of textual relevance. It is in initial position because it has to be, as it is governed by the interrogative mood of the clause. In contrast, wh- interrogatives do express an experiential function and consequently it is generally the interrogative pronoun (or wh-word), and not the Finite element, which is Theme in the unmarked case for these clauses.

In order to see how Theme works in wh- interrogative clauses, the invented examples in Figure 6.3 have been analysed for all three metafunctions. This allows us to see precisely why the wh- interrogative pronoun expresses the function of Theme and the Finite element in these cases is part of the Rheme.

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.3 Three-strand analysis of invented interrogative examples

It is important to note that if the wh- word is part of a particular structural unit then the entire unit becomes Theme. For example, in how well do you know her?, the entire unit how well would express Theme and not simply how.

6.3.3 Imperative mood

In Chapter 5, imperative clauses were discussed in detail and the status of the Finite and Subject were explained as being significant elements of these clauses even though they are rarely expressed. It was noted that the Finite is always made explicit when the clause also expresses negative polarity, as is the case for clause (19), in Figure 6.4. The most common and unmarked structure for the imperative clause is for the Subject and Finite to be covert or unexpressed (although always recoverable) and for the clause to begin with the process (or event in interpersonal terms). This means that as these types of clauses are analysed it is important to remember that the Subject and Finite are understood as being present. If tree diagrams were being used to illustrate the analysis of the clause, then these elements would be included (see Chapter 5). With the box diagrams used here, it can cause some clutter to the tables if items which are not expressed are represented, but this is up to each individual’s preferences.

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.4 Three-strand analysis for imperative clause from Text 6.3

In Text 6.2 above, several of the clauses are in imperative mood, where the Theme is expressed by a verb (examples (10) to (12), which are repeated in Figure 6.5). Since Subject is rarely expressed in imperative clauses, it does not provide a regular option for beginning the clause. These clauses typically begin with the event unless the Finite element is overtly expressed (e.g. to express negative polarity). Note that for all finite clauses, including imperative clauses, the Finite should always be labelled in the analysis even if it is not explicitly expressed since it has such a significant role in determining mood.

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.5 Three-strand analysis for clauses (10) to (12)

6.4 Types of Theme

It may have been noted that in several of the clauses presented above, Theme included some parts of the clause before the Subject. These are thematic elements in the sense that they are the way in which the clause begins and they have a textual function. Just as the clause has three types of meaning, there are three types of Theme. The main Theme element is referred to as the experiential Theme since it is generally the Theme carrying the initial experiential content and will often conflate with the Subject of the clause. In addition to this core thematic element, there are two extra and optional types of Theme: interpersonal Theme and textual Theme. Each of these three types is explained in the following sections.

A sample of the analysis of textual meaning within the clause will be given in section 6.6, where examples of these three types of Theme will be illustrated.

6.4.1 Experiential Theme

Experiential Theme, also referred to as topical Theme by some authors, is considered the core element of the textual metafunction in the sense that it is the only required element. It is referred to as experiential Theme because Theme generally corresponds to the first clausal element expressing experiential meaning. In the vast majority of cases, this will correspond to the first participant in the clause. As was discussed in section 6.3.3, when a clause expresses imperative mood, the first experiential element is most likely to be the process rather than a participant. Finally, some clauses begin with a circumstance, as shown in Table 6.2 above. In these cases then the experiential Theme conflates with a circumstance and is considered marked.

Some textbooks will refer to the core Theme element as topical Theme (see for example, Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004 and Bloor and Bloor, 2004). As Thompson (2004:159) argues, this terminology can introduce some problems because of the use of the term ‘topic’ in other types of analyses. Furthermore, it seems that ‘topic’ may inadvertently introduce meanings that are not intended by the meaning of Theme.

Identifying what is the Theme in a clause can become difficult when certain constructions are used. This will be discussed in section 6.5, where certain special constructions are considered in terms of Theme analysis.

The textual metafunction is in some ways more complex than the other strands of meaning because it extends beyond the clause. As a consequence, the view of Theme has to take multiple perspectives at once (for example, textual meaning within the clause and textual meaning within the text). Suggested readings on Theme and textual meaning will be given in section 6.10 for readers who are interested in more than an introductory discussion of the textual strand of meaning, as is presented here.

6.4.2 Textual Theme

Textual Themes are elements of the clause which do not have any other function than to express textual meaning. They do not express any experiential or interpersonal functions. They tend to have an explicit relevance function and serve to indicate the relevance of the clause to neighbouring clauses within the text. In traditional terms, textual Themes are expressed by conjunctions (e.g. but, and, or) or continuatives (e.g. well, so).

As an illustration of the importance of these themes, the text given in Figure 6.6 will be analysed in terms of the textual metafunction. The original writing has been reproduced in Text 6.4 for ease of reading. This text is a homework sample from a ten-year-old boy. The goal of the worksheet was to have students use connectives to ‘improve’ their writing. The ‘connectives’ referred to in this assignment are functionally textual Themes.


Text 6.4 Written text on ‘connectives’ from Figure 6.6

Yes! Finally! I beat the pokémon league! Since I’m a poké-fan that’s a brilliant late-Christmas present to me. (This is in the Christmas holidays after New Year’s Eve.) Whenever my friend Michaël and I get together in France, we play Pokémon and here’s what happened this time. First we traded Pokémon. He gave me his Empoleon and Diagla while I gave him Bunary and Bronzor. Then I used those two Pokémon to beat the Pokémon league. I beat it with them because they were so strong. I couldn’t beat it earlier because I wasn’t so strong in this game since I didn’t train enough. When I beat it, I could see hundreds of new Pokémon from the Sinnoh region. They were hidden however I could find them.


Figure 6.6

Figure 6.6 Written class work on connectives, ten-year-old boy, January 2008

The analysis for Text 6.4 is given in Table 6.4, where the text is listed clause by clause. The textual Themes are given in italics and any marked Themes (e.g. a circumstance in initial position) are indicated in bold. The analysis shows that the student has used a variety of textual Themes and although some may seem slightly awkward (e.g. clause (48) use of however), they are used to orient the organization of the clauses within the text and to show relevance with neighbouring clauses. In some cases, as for example in clauses (32) and (36), the experiential Theme is also expressing the meaning of a textual Theme (that and here). This is because these items are deictic and inherently serve a pronoun function simultaneously with a relevance function.

Table 6.4: Theme analysis for Text 6.4 on ‘connectives’


Theme

Textual Theme

Experiential Theme

Rheme

(30)

I

beat the pokémon league!

(31)

Since

I

’m a poké-fan

(32)

that

’s a brilliant late-Christmas present to me.

(33)

(This

is in the Christmas holidays after New Year’s Eve.)

(34)

Whenever

my friend Michaël and I

get together in France,

(35)

we

play Pokémon

(36)

and

here

’s what happened this time.

(37)

First

we

traded Pokémon.

(38)

He

gave me his Empoleon and Diagla

(39)

while

I

gave him Bunary and Bronzor.

(40)

Then

I

used those two Pokémon to beat the Pokémon league.

(41)

I

beat it with them

(42)

because

they

were so strong.

(43)

I

couldn’t beat it earlier

(44)

because

I

wasn’t so strong in this game

(45)

since

I

didn’t train enough.

(46)

When I beat it,

I could see hundreds of new Pokémon from the Sinnoh region.

(47)

They

were hidden

(48)

however

I

could find them.


Before moving on to consider interpersonal Themes, there is one issue concerning the distinction between experiential Themes and textual Themes that should be addressed. If we compare clauses (40) and (46), it may not be immediately clear why clause (46) is considered to have a marked Theme but clause (40) is not. This reflects the difficulty at times in determining whether an element has an experiential circumstance role or whether it is functioning only textually to indicate organization and/or relevance.

In Text 6.4, the use of then in clause (40) has the function of orienting the clause with respect to the neighbouring clause (e.g. first, while, then) rather than functioning as a Location circumstance which indicates when in time the process took place. In this example, then could have been replaced with next, which indicates its sequencing function (and therefore a textual Theme). However, in clause (46), When I beat it is indicating a point in time, a location at which point the process took place. This could be replaced by a specific date and time when the ‘seeing’ took place; e.g. On Saturday 29 December 2007, I could see hundreds of new Pokémon from the Sinnoh region. In terms of experiential meaning, when I beat it has the function of a Location circumstance and therefore is a marked experiential Theme.

6.4.3 Interpersonal Theme

The third type of Theme considered here is the interpersonal Theme. This includes any element of the clause that has an interpersonal function and is in a thematic role. These elements will generally be expressed by various modal adjuncts (e.g. maybe, certainly), auxiliary verbs (e.g. can, do), interrogative pronouns (e.g. who, how, see Chapter 2) or vocatives (e.g. Lise, Tom). As was noted in section 6.3.2, interrogative clauses thematize the Finite element. However, all interpersonal elements occurring before the experiential Theme will have the function of interpersonal Theme.

In order to illustrate how interpersonal Themes can work in a text, the excerpt given in Text 6.5 is examined in terms of textual meaning. The context for this is an email from a mother to her adult daughter, which approximates casual conversation. The analysis of textual meaning is given in Table 6.5.


Text 6.5 Excerpt from a personal email, in original orthography (1999)

He might be someone she could do something with once in awhile, of course maybe she wouldn’t want to. Is he still working at that plant? Jack took your address so he’ll likely be emailing you, I tried to send it to him but there’s still something wrong. Well guess I’ll go and put my washing on the line.


Table 6.5: Textual analysis for Text 6.5


Theme

Rheme

Textual Theme

Interpersonal Theme

Experiential Theme

(49)

He

might be someone she could do something with once in awhile,

(50)

of course

maybe

she

wouldn’t want to.

(51)

Is

he

still working at that plant?

(52)

Jack

took your address

(53)

so

he

’ll likely be emailing you,

(54)

I

tried to send it to him

(55)

but

there

’s still something wrong.

(56)

Well

guess

I

’ll go

(57)

and

(I)

(will) put my washing on the line.


As the analysis above shows, many of the clauses include textual Themes, which were discussed in the previous section. The interpersonal Themes, as in clauses (50), (51) and (56) in Table 6.5, express interpersonal meaning (i.e. modality and mood). The full analysis of these clauses would show that maybe in clause (50) expresses simultaneously a modal adjunct and an interpersonal Theme. In clause (51), is expresses the Finite element and interpersonal Theme. Clause (56) is different in terms of the structural unit expressing the modal adjunct and interpersonal Theme since it is a reduction of I guess and serves a similar meaning to maybe or perhaps in this clause.

The identification of interpersonal Theme is based on an understanding of the interpersonal metafunction. Any interpersonal element of the clause which appears before the Subject will also have a thematic function and, therefore, in the analysis of the clause these elements will have a textual role as interpersonal Theme. Consequently, interpersonal Themes will always have two simultaneous functions in each of interpersonal meaning and textual meaning, whereas textual Themes have only a textual function. As stated earlier, experiential Themes will often express meaning from all three strands of meaning at the same time.

One final observation to be made from Table 6.5 is the unexpressed or covert experiential Theme in clause (57). In this clause, the Theme has been ellipsed and is recoverable from the preceding clause. Ellipsis will be discussed in more detail in section 6.7.2.2 below.

Having now considered the three types of Theme, the next section takes a look at some particular grammatical structures which challenge our understanding of Theme. Following this brief presentation, section 6.6 provides step-by-step guidelines for a full three-strand analysis of the clause since this chapter completes the view of the three main metafunctions.

6.5 Thematic constructions

This section considers certain grammatical constructions which can cause some difficulty when analysing Theme. The criteria for identifying experiential Theme developed here state that the experiential Theme will be the first experiential element of the clause up to and including the Subject. Therefore, if there are no other experiential elements before the Subject, then the participant/Subject will also express the Theme. In cases where a circumstance occurs before the Subject of the clause, Theme is conflated with the circumstance rather than the participant and Theme is said to be marked. However, we have already seen one exception to this and this concerns clauses in the imperative mood. These clauses typically begin with the process, which is seen as experiential Theme since it is the first expressed experiential element of the clause.

The constructions that will be discussed in this section are being referred to as thematic constructions because they enhance Theme in some way. It should be noted that there are varied views about what should be considered Theme in these cases but the keen reader will find references to more detailed discussions of this topic in section 6.10. The examples cited in this section have all been taken from L. Frank Baum’s The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.2

6.5.1 Existential Theme

The difficulty with existential clauses is that the Subject, there, has no experiential function. Consequently the first experiential element of the clause is the existential process, be, but it could not possibly be considered as experiential Theme as it does not fit with the function of Theme. It does not begin the clause nor does it have any relevance function. If Theme is taken to be the first core element of the clause, where core is intended to mean obligatory element, then it becomes easier to see that the Subject of existential clauses may also express Theme when it is the first core functional element of the clause, as is most commonly the case.

The potential for beginning a clause with a circumstantial element is present for all clause types and, as already explained, in these cases Theme is considered marked. This distinction is shown in examples (58) and (59), where the experiential Theme is underlined. In example (58), Theme is unmarked as it conflates with Subject but note that it has no experiential meaning. Theme in example (59) is marked since it conflates with a fronted circumstance.

(58) There is no place like home

(59) At the East, not far from here, there is a great desert

6.5.2 Extraposed participant

The structures being grouped under this heading include those known traditionally as cleft-constructions, predicated theme constructions and other structures where a participant is postponed later in the clause. There are differences among the various types but they all have it as Subject. The it Subject is coreferential with a participant which has been displaced or extraposed to the Rheme of the clause. Examples of this type of construction are given in (60) and (61), where the extraposed participant is underlined. The it in these cases is said to be anticipatory because its referent anticipates the extraposed participant.The Theme in these cases is considered to be the anticipatory it, which parallels the treatment of Theme in existential clauses. Unlike existential clauses, however, one could argue that it is not empty of experiential meaning as is there, but rather that it shares the same experiential function as its coreferential participant. That is to say that, for example, in clause (60), the it shares the role of Carrier with to have their new comrade join the party. In this way the it Subject/Theme causes some anticipation of the extraposed participant, which also has a thematic function because of the it Subject.

(60) It was a bit of good luck to have their new comrade join the party

(61) It was a great mistake my ever letting you into the Throne Room

6.5.3 Preposed Theme

This construction is almost the inverse of the extraposed participant construction. It is a way of highlighting the Theme by announcing it before the clause. It also allows the speaker to direct the addressee’s focus. The grammatical pattern is most frequently two adjacent nominal groups (or nominal-like units such as a prepositional phrase), where the first is fully lexical and the second is a personal pronoun. The important feature is that the pair of expressions is coreferential. Examples of this construction are given in (62) and (63), where the preposed Theme is underlined. It is important to note that these forms are not expressing a circumstance, and this can be shown by the fact that they cannot be displaced elsewhere in the clause. Furthermore, due to the coreferential nature of these expressions, they share the same experiential function as its pronominal counterpart.There is one other similar construction which is referred to in Thompson (2004) and this is what he calls preposed attributives. They are similar to preposed Theme in the sense that a participant occurring later in the clause is preposed to have prominence, but the difference is that the preposed element itself is an attributive of the Subject. This is illustrated in example (64), which is taken from Thompson (2004: 163).

(62) As for the Lion, he wiped his eyes so often with the tip of his tail that it became quite wet

(63) As for the little old woman, she took off her cap

(64) Priced from under £200 to around £20,000, our choice of rings is seemingly endless

6.6 Analysing Theme

So far in this chapter, we have not considered structure explicitly. This is largely because experiential Theme is conflated with an existing element of the clause and, consequently, the relevant structures have been covered in previous chapters (especially Chapters 4 and 5). As already stated earlier in this chapter, the clause has only two elements when viewed from the textual metafunction: Theme and Rheme. A basic view of this structure is given in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.7 Basic clause structure for the textual metafunction

Since the view given in Figure 6.7 considers only one strand of meaning, it is not particularly useful when the goal is a multifunctional analysis of the clause, which must incorporate the functions from three strands of meaning. As discussed above, Theme will often conflate with the first participant/Subject in the clause; this is shown in Figure 6.8. However, Rheme does not conflate with any other single element of the clause; it is simply the rest of the clause that is not Theme. It can become quite difficult to label Rheme on a tree diagram and so this element is generally omitted from tree diagrams, as illustrated in Figure 6.9, which attempts to show how the various strands of meaning can be integrated in a tree diagram. Although this diagram uses a material clause for illustrative purposes, the same schema would work for any type of clause. However, different mood types have different configurations, and the diagram shown in Figure 6.9 is only representative of declarative clauses with unmarked Theme. Examples of other configurations including different mood types and marked Theme are given below in the analysis of clauses from Text 6.6.


Text 6.6 Excerpt from the Air Canada report

In a high altitude emergency, an oxygen mask will drop in front of you from the panel above. Place the mask over your mouth and nose, straighten out the strap, and pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face. After you are wearing it securely, a tug on the hose will start the oxygen flow. It makes sense to put your own mask on first, before helping others.


Figure 6.8

Figure 6.8 Three-strand representation of the clause

Figure 6.9

Figure 6.9 Integrated three-strand view of the clause

The remainder of this section will present the analysis of Theme by drawing on a text excerpt that was previously analysed in Chapters 4 and 5 (see Text 6.6 below, which was first presented in Chapter 4). First the guidelines for analysing the clause will be reviewed (compare this with Chapter 5) and then the new steps relevant to analysing Theme will be added. Finally the analysis of the text will be presented, which offers a full three-strand analysis of the clause in detail.

6.6.1 Towards a full three-strand multifunctional analysis

The guidelines presented here follow on from those listed in Chapter 5 with two additional steps added which relate to analysing textual meaning. Once these new steps are included, the guidelines will be nearly complete and they will be presented in full in Chapter 8. There is a very important precursor to these guidelines, which involves the guidelines for recognizing clause boundaries within a text, which will be detailed in Chapter 7. For now, as in previous chapters, the guidelines presented here assume that the clause boundaries have been correctly identified.

6.6.1.1 Guidelines for analysing experiential, interpersonal and textual meaning

Identify the process and use the process test to show how many participants are expected by the process

This step relies on the process test to identify the number of participants which are expected by the process.

Use the replacement test and/or the movement test to identify the internal boundaries of the clause (different elements of the clause)

This step relates to the analogy of finding the walls and rooms in the house, as was discussed in Chapter 2. Here the intermediate structural units of the clause are verified. See Chapter 3 for detail about nominal group boundaries.

Determine the process type and participant roles

This step involves working with the criteria and tests developed in Chapter 4 in order to determine the type of process and the particular participant expressed.

Identify any circumstance roles

This step considers any potential circumstances in the clause. The strategies given in Chapter 4 should help in working out the function of any circumstances. The questions associated to each type (see Table 2 in Chapter 4) should be used as probes in identifying the function of the circumstance.

Identify the Finite type

In this step, the type of Finite is determined. If the Finite is conflated with an auxiliary verb, it would be useful at this point to check for any other auxiliary verbs (see Chapter 5).

Use the Subject test to identify the Subject

In this step you will apply the Subject test as given in Chapter 5 in order to verify the boundaries of the structural unit which is expressing the Subject of the clause.

Determine the mood of the clause

The mood is determined by the order of the Subject and Finite (see Chapter 5). If a non-finite clause is being analysed, this step would be skipped, as non-finite clauses do not express a mood choice.

Identify all modal elements including markers of negative polarity

In this step, any modal adjuncts, modal verbs and/or negator are identified (see Chapter 5).

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

For most clauses, the experiential Theme will correspond to the first experiential element of the clause. This is most likely to be the first participant in declarative and interrogative clauses or the process in imperative clauses. Certain grammatical constructions provide alternative Theme specification (see section 6.5 on thematic constructions). For all clause types, when a circumstance occurs first in a clause it is labelled the experiential Theme and is considered to be marked.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

This step could easily be integrated with step 9, but is kept separate in order to make it easier to recognize the different thematic functions expressed in the clause.

Draw the tree diagram

6.6.2 A sample three-strand analysis of the clause

Now that the steps in the guidelines for analysing the clause have been reviewed, the analysis can be done. The approach taken here is to build up the three-strand analysis by beginning first with the experiential strand of meaning, then mapping the interpersonal functions onto the clause and then finally completing the analysis with textual meaning. Selecting a text that has already been analysed will make this task much easier. In this way, the focus can be exclusively on the textual meaning of the clause without struggling to work out the functions within the other two strands of meaning.

The text being analysed here was fully analysed for experiential meaning in Chapter 4. Parts of it were analysed interpersonally in Chapter 5. As a consequence most of the steps in the guidelines listed above have already been completed. The list of clauses is given below. Following this, each clause will be analysed completely and represented both as a tree diagram and as a box diagram.

Clause list for Text 6.6

1. [1] In a high altitude emergency, an oxygen mask will drop in front of you from the panel above

2. [2] Place the mask over your mouth and nose

3. [3] straighten out the strap

4. [4] and pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face

5. [5] After you are wearing it securely a tug on the hose will start the oxygen flow

6. [6] It makes sense to put your own mask on first, before helping others

Clause [1]

In a high altitude emergency, an oxygen mask will drop in front of you from the panel above.

This clause was analysed in Chapters 4 and 5 so therefore all steps related to experiential meaning and interpersonal meaning have been completed, with the exception of step 6, which involves determining the mood of the clause. This means that the analysis here can begin with step 9.

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

This clause is not in the form of any special thematic construction. The first experiential element of the clause is the circumstance, in a high altitude emergency. Therefore this element also expresses experiential Theme and it is marked.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

As there is nothing before the experiential Theme, there is no textual or interpersonal Theme.

Draw the tree diagram

The tree and box diagrams are given in Figure 6.10. As was discussed in Chapter 5, tree diagrams do not indicate Predicator since this label refers to the remainder of the verb group after the Finite element has been identified. When using box diagrams, however, Predicator is included.

Figure 6.10

Figure 6.10 Full three-strand analysis for clause [1]

Clause [2]

Place the mask over your mouth and nose

As with the previous clause, this one was also analysed in Chapters 4 and 5. The analysis given here will begin with step 9.

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

This clause is not in the form of any special thematic construction. The first experiential element of the clause is the process, place. Therefore this element also expresses experiential Theme and since it is the expected first experiential element, given the imperative mood of the clause, it is an unmarked Theme.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

As there is nothing before the experiential Theme, there is no textual or interpersonal Theme.

Draw the tree diagram

The tree and box diagrams are given in Figure 6.11.

Figure 6.11

Figure 6.11 Full three-strand analysis for clause [2]

Clause [3]

Straighten out the strap

Although this clause was analysed in Chapter 4, it was not analysed in Chapter 5. Consequently all steps up to and including step 4 have been completed. The analysis here will resume with step 5.

Identify the Finite type

There does not appear to be a Finite element in this clause. This would suggest that the clause is either imperative or non-finite. In order to be certain that it is a finite imperative clause, the polarity can be reversed and, as a result, the Finite element will either reveal itself or we will have to reconsider that the clause is non-finite. Re-expressing the clause with negative polarity shows that the negator conflates with the Finite element: Don’t straighten out the strap. Therefore we can conclude that the clause is finite but that the Finite element is not expressed in this instance.

Use the Subject test to identify the Subject

In order to use the Subject test, the clause must be re-expressed with all participants fully expressed and an auxiliary verb must be added. This gives: you can straighten out the strap. The Subject test re-expresses the declarative clause as an interrogative, which forces the Finite element to precede the Subject element. The result of this test is: Can you straighten out the strap?

This shows that you functions as the Subject in this clause, even though it has not been expressed lexically.

Determine the mood of the clause

This clause looks as though it has no Subject or Finite and it begins with a verb. It can be tested for imperative mood by negating the clause: don’t straighten out the strap. Furthermore the Subject can be explicitly expressed: you straighten out the strap and don’t you straighten out the strap. This shows that the clause is expressed in imperative mood.

Identify all modal elements including markers of negative polarity

This clause expresses modality of obligation through imperative mood. There are no other expressions of modality or polarity.

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

This clause is not in the form of any special thematic construction. The first experiential element of the clause is the process, place. Therefore this element also expresses experiential Theme and since it is the expected first experiential element, given the imperative mood of the clause, it is an unmarked Theme.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

As there is nothing before the experiential Theme, there is no textual or interpersonal Theme.

Draw the tree diagram

The tree and box diagrams are given in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12

Figure 6.12 Full three-strand analysis for clause [3]

Clause [4]

And pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face

This clause also was analysed in Chapter 4 but not Chapter 5. The analysis here will begin here with step 5.

Identify the Finite type

As with the previous imperative clauses, the question here is where the Finite element is. Re-expressing the clause with negative polarity shows that the negator conflates with the Finite element: and don’t pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face. Therefore we can conclude that the clause is finite but that the Finite element is not expressed in this instance. The clause is imperative.

Use the Subject test to identify the Subject

In order to use the Subject test, the clause must be re-expressed with all participants fully expressed and an auxiliary verb must be added. This gives: and you should pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face. The Subject test re-expresses the declarative clause as an interrogative, which forces the Finite element to precede the Subject element. The result of this test is: and should you pull the strap to be sure it is tight on your face?

This shows that you functions as the Subject in this clause, even though it has not been expressed lexically.

Determine the mood of the clause

This clause looks as though it has no Subject or Finite and it begins with a verb. It can be tested for imperative mood by negating the clause: don’t pull the strap. . . Furthermore the Subject can be explicitly expressed: you pull the strap. . . and don’t you pull the strap. . . This shows that the clause is expressed in imperative mood.

Identify all modal elements including markers of negative polarity

This clause expresses modality of obligation through imperative mood. There are no other expressions of modality or polarity.

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

This clause is not in the form of any special thematic construction. The first experiential element of the clause is the process, pull. Therefore this element also expresses experiential Theme and since it is the expected first experiential element, given the imperative mood of the clause, it is an unmarked Theme.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

The only element preceding the experiential Theme is the conjunction and. As this has no other function in the other strands of meaning we can be confident that it expresses a textual Theme; however, it should be clear that it functions to link the clause with the preceding clause.

Draw the tree diagram

The tree and box diagrams are given in Figure 6.13.

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.13 Full three-strand analysis for clause [4]

Clause [5]

After you are wearing it securely a tug on the hose will start the oxygen flow.

This clause also was analysed in Chapter 4 but not Chapter 5. The analysis here will begin here with step 5.

Identify the Finite type

Identifying the Finite in this clause is dependent on earlier steps that would have determined the internal unit boundaries. This was done in Chapter 4 with the following result:


After you are wearing it securely

a tug on the hose

will start

the oxygen flow

Location

Actor

Pr: material

Goal


The circumstance of Location includes an embedded finite clause (see Chapter 7), which could cause some challenges for identifying the Finite type here since the embedded clause, you are wearing it securely, also includes a Finite element (i.e. are). However, in the analysis of the main clause (i.e. a process of starting) there are only two verbs involved: will and start.

Since will is a modal auxiliary verb and start is a lexical verb, there is no doubt that the Finite element is expressed by the modal auxiliary verb, will.

Use the Subject test to identify the Subject

In order to use the Subject test, the clause must be in the declarative mood and it needs to have an auxiliary verb. It meets both criteria. Applying the Subject test gives the following result: After you are wearing it securely will a tug on the hose start the oxygen flow?

This shows that a tug on the hose functions as the Subject in this clause.

Determine the mood of the clause

The Subject precedes the Finite, which indicates declarative mood.

Identify all modal elements including markers of negative polarity

This clause includes a modal verb and in this clause it is expressing modalization of probability. There are no other markers of modality or polarity.

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

This clause is not in the form of any special thematic construction. The first experiential element of the clause is the Location circumstance, After you are wearing it securely. Therefore this element also expresses experiential Theme but since it is not the expected first experiential element, it is a marked Theme.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

There is no other element preceding the experiential Theme.

Draw the tree diagram

The tree and box diagrams are given in Figure 6.14.

Figure 6.14

Figure 6.14 Full three-strand analysis for clause [5]

Clause [6]

It makes sense to put your own mask on first before helping others

This last clause, like the preceding ones, was analysed for experiential meaning in Chapter 4 only. The analysis here will begin here with step 5.

Identify the Finite type

Identifying the Finite in this clause is dependent on earlier steps that would have determined the internal unit boundaries (see Chapter 7). The analysis done in Chapter 4 gave the following result:


it

makes

sense

to put on your own mask first

before helping others

(Carrier)

Pr: relational

Attribute

Carrier

Location


There are two verbs in this clause: makes and helping. However, they are not part of the same verb group. The use of helping in this case is non-finite because there is no progressive auxiliary (be) supporting it. If the clause containing helping were finite, there would have to be a progressive auxiliary and indeed we would continue to look left in the verb group to see if a Finite element could be identified. In any case, given that before helping others is expressing a circumstance, it cannot be considered to include the Finite element of the main clause where the process is makes.

We can test that makes is expressing the Finite element by changing the tense to past. The Finite element will inflect the past tense. The result of doing so is as follows: it made sense to put your own mask on first before helping others.

This shows that there is only one Finite element in this clause and it is expressed by makes.

Use the Subject test to identify the Subject

In order to use the Subject test, the clause must be in the declarative mood and it needs to have an auxiliary verb. This clause is in declarative mood but an appropriate auxiliary verb must be added. In this case, the auxiliary verb do will be added as follows: it does make sense to put your own mask on first before helping others. Applying the Subject test gives the following result: does it make sense to put your own mask on first before helping others?

This shows that it functions as the Subject in this clause.

Determine the mood of the clause

The Subject precedes the Finite, which indicates declarative mood.

Identify all modal elements including markers of negative polarity

There are no markers of modality or polarity.

Locate the experiential Theme of the clause and indicate whether it is marked or not

This clause is in the form of a special thematic construction: Extraposed participant. The it Subject in this case is coreferential with to put on your own mask first, which expresses a Carrier role. This structure allows the Carrier to be in a position after the Attribute. As explained in section 6.5.2, the Theme in these cases is the Subject, it.

Check for any other thematic elements (i.e. textual and/or interpersonal Themes)

There is no other element preceding the experiential Theme.

Draw the tree diagram

The tree and box diagrams are given in Figure 6.15.

Figure 6.15

Figure 6.15 Full three-strand analysis for clause [6]

This section completes the multifunctional view of the clause since all three main metafunctions have been examined for their treatment of the clause. However, there are some remaining issues concerning the identification of clause boundaries. So far, the clause boundaries have been presented as given. In Chapter 7 the ways in which clauses combine will be explained, which will offer some detail as to how clauses can be identified within text. Chapter 8 summarizes everything concerning analysing the clause and works through the full functional–structural approach which was developed throughout this book. Before moving on to these chapters, there are still some aspects of textual meaning that need to be explained. This concerns how textual meaning within the clause contributes to the creation of text.

6.7 Texture

At the start of this chapter, texture was identified as that which distinguishes a text from something that is not a text. In other words, all texts have texture according to Halliday and Hasan (1976). In the metaphor of a text being something woven, texture is then the threads that hold the text together. Theme, by its very nature, provides one kind of texture in the sense that it inherently connects the clause to the text as a reference point, indicating relevance.

In this section, the discussion of textual meaning extends beyond the clause to show some of the ways in which Theme contributes to the text. A selection of key textual devices which contribute to a text’s texture will be discussed. These include thematic progression, cohesive reference and ellipsis. This presentation is necessarily selective as it is meant to provide an introductory overview of texture and its relation to Theme.

6.7.1 Thematic progression

It has already been established that one of the main functions of Theme is to indicate relevance. This view of Theme suggests that the Theme of a given clause will be the main link between the clause and the text. The idea that Theme is a relevance indicator implies that ideally there should always be an attributable source for the Theme. In other words, in theory, Theme is always motivated by something. However, in practice, speakers are not necessarily going to adhere to this principle and there may be reasons why what seems to be the relevance of the clause is not found in the Theme. In these cases, Theme would not be motivated by relevance. Consequently, precision about the definition and function of Theme is very important.

An approach which attempts to capture, at least in abstract terms, the source of a given Theme was developed by DaneU+0161 (1974), which he called thematic progression. His idea was that every Theme will have progressed from one of three possible sources:

· Constant Theme progression, where the Theme of a given clause is derived from the Theme of a preceding clause;

· Linear Theme progression, where the Theme is derived from the Rheme of a preceding clause;

· Derived Theme progression, where the Theme is derived from what DaneU+0161 referred to as a Hypertheme, a general overriding topic of a larger stretch of text such as a paragraph.

These three types of thematic progression are illustrated (adapted from DaneU+0161, 1974) in Figures 6.16 to 6.18, inclusive.

Figure 6.16

Figure 6.16 Constant Theme progression

Figure 6.17

Figure 6.17 Linear Theme progression

Figure 6.18

Figure 6.18 Derived Theme progression

In order to explore thematic progression in text, an explanatory text will be used. The extract given here as Text 6.7 is taken from a website3 that is dedicated to explaining weather-related phenomena. The topic of this text is snowflakes and how they are formed. The text is addressing school-age children.The clauses have been listed and analysed for Theme and Rheme as shown in Table 6.6. The final column is used to indicate the co-textual source for each Theme, wherever this is possible.


Text 6.7 What Are Snowflakes?

Snowflakes are made of ice crystals. Each snowflake is made of as many as 200 ice crystals. Some snow crystals are symmetrical, like the type that you cut from paper. They form a hexagonal shape because that is how water molecules organize themselves as they freeze. Others are small and irregularly shaped. If they spin like tops as they fall to the ground, they may be perfectly symmetrical when they hit the Earth. But if they fall sideways, they will end up lopsided.


Table 6.6: Thematic progression for Text 6.7, ‘What Are Snowflakes?’


Theme

Rheme

Thematic progression

Textual Theme

Experiential Theme

[7]

Snowflakes

are made of ice crystals.

Derived

(from title)

[8]

Each snowflake

is made of as many as 200 ice crystals.

Constant

[9]

Some snow crystals

are symmetrical, like the type that you cut from paper.

Linear

[10]

They

form a hexagonal shape

Constant

[11]

because

that

is how water molecules organize themselves as they freeze.

Linear

[12]

Others

are small and irregularly shaped.

Constant

[13]

If

they

spin like tops as they fall to the ground,

Constant

[14]

they

may be perfectly symmetrical when they hit the Earth.

Constant

[15]

But if

they

fall sideways,

Constant

[16]

they

will end up lopsided.

Constant


Although this is a relatively simple text, the analysis shows that in this text Theme is very often relevant to a preceding clause. The most common Theme is snow crystals although this also refers indirectly to snowflakes, since snowflakes are made from snow crystals. Constant Theme progression was frequent here, which reinforces the topic of this stretch of text. The change from constant to linear progression in clauses [8] to [9] indicate a shift in the text from a focus on the snowflake to the snow crystal. It is also relevant to note that the Theme in clause [12] is derived from the Theme in clause [9] through a contrast (i.e. some snow crystals U+2190 others). Although the connection between these two Themes is not adjacent, the relevance of the Theme in clause [12] can be attributed to the one in clause [9].

Most research on thematic progression in text shows that, generally speaking, the source of Theme can be seen to be derived from a preceding clause (i.e. constant or linear progression) in the majority of instances. Different authors and different texts will combine the resources for the use of Theme in making explicit the relevance of a particular clause to the text.

If the source of a Theme cannot be attributed, it is considered to be a ruptured Theme. This may be for rhetorical effect or because the speaker has misjudged the addressee’s needs in receiving the text. If, for example, the text above included a Theme which seemed to be unmotivated or ruptured from the text, it would likely signal a problem area. A modification of Text 6.7 is given in Table 6.7, where some clauses have been omitted and an invented one has been added. The progression of Theme in each clause is illustrated in Figure 6.19.

Figure 6.19

Figure 6.19 Illustration of thematic progression from the modified ‘Snowflake’ text given in Table 6.7

Table 6.7: Modified selection from the ‘Snowflake’ text


Experiential Theme

Rheme

Thematic progression

[7]

Snowflakes

are made of ice crystals.

Derived (from title)

[9]

Some snow crystals

are symmetrical, like the type that you cut from paper.

Linear

[10]

They

form a hexagonal shape

Constant

[17]

Meteorologists

know how snowflakes are formed

Ruptured Theme


A ruptured Theme can indicate a weak point in the text. This is something that I encountered frequently when working as language editor for the MIT journal Evolutionary Computation. International authors writing in English often had difficulties in negotiating Theme use. Many studies have shown the merits of teaching students of writing how thematic progression can help to improve the flow of a text.

6.7.2 Textual cohesion

The concept of cohesion is semantic rather than structural in the sense that it functions around the clause rather than within it. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 4) cohesion is recognized when ‘the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another’. The use of personal pronouns is a very common example of this since they have no complete interpretation of their own so they must be understood by reference to something else. Cohesion contributes to texture by creating a tie or thread between a point in the text and another point either within the text or within the context. In other words, texture is traceable through cohesion.

Three types of textual cohesion will be discussed in this section: reference, ellipsis and conjunction. Each of these will be described briefly below by looking at examples of them in Text 6.8, an excerpt from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.4


Text 6.8 An excerpt from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz


Line no.

Speaker

Text

1.

Oz

Don’t speak so loud, or you will be overheard and

2.

I should be ruined. I’m supposed to be a Great Wizard.

3.

Dorothy

And aren’t you?

4.

Oz

Not a bit of it, my dear, I’m just a common man.

5.

Scarecrow

You’re more than that. You’re a humbug.

6.

Oz

Exactly so! I am a humbug.

7.

Tin Woodman

But this is terrible. How shall I ever get my heart?

. . .

8.

Scarecrow

Can’t you give me brains?

9.

Oz

You don’t need them. You are learning something

10.

every day.



6.7.2.1 Cohesive reference

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 31) define reference as ‘a type of cohesive relation in which a linguistic item, having no semantic interpretation of its own, refers to a thing or place. These linguistic items make REFERENCE to something else for their interpretation.’ This refers to expressions which take their meaning from elsewhere. There are two types of cohesive reference: endophoric reference, where the item takes its interpretation from within the text and exophoric reference, where the interpretation is found in the situational context, external to the text.

In the Wizard of Oz extract in Text 6.8, every instance of a personal pronoun is an example of reference. For example, the uses of you and I throughout the extract are examples of exophoric reference, creating a cohesive link between the text and the situation. There is no way to know who you refers to unless you know who is being addressed and, similarly, there is no meaning to I without knowing who is speaking. There is only one instance of endophoric reference, or text-internal reference, and this occurs on line 9 with the use of them, when Oz says, You don’t need them. This pronoun has no meaning of its own other than grammatical meaning such as plural, for example. It can only be interpreted meaningfully by reference to brains in the preceding clause on line 8.

6.7.2.2 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is an interesting phenomenon because it is identifiable by nothingness or absence within a bounded context, usually a clause. For example, if a person asks a friend, would you like another cup of coffee?, the response might be yes I would like another cup of coffee but it is more likely to be simply yes I would. This response is based on a particular understanding and this is that the speaker is confident that the addressee will be able to interpret the presupposition being made. We can use the null symbol, Ø, to indicate that something structural has been omitted. In the current example, we could write: yes I would Ø, where Ø represents the absence of like another cup of coffee. As Halliday and Hasan (1976: 144) explain, ‘ellipsis occurs when something that is structurally necessary is left unsaid’.

Ellipsis creates texture because it forces a connection – or a tie, in Halliday and Hasan’s terms – between the point of ellipsis and another part of the text (endophoric ellipsis). In this extract from Text 6.8, there are two instances of ellipsis. These are shown in Figure 6.20 on lines 1 and 3, where the ellipsed structure is indicated by Ø.

Figure 6.20

Figure 6.20 Examples of ellipsis in Text 6.8

Ellipsis is a kind of structural ‘place-holding device’ (Halliday, 1994: 317) that requires the addressee to recover or retrieve meaning from elsewhere in the text. The ellipsis found in line 1 does meet this description of ellipsis even though, with imperative clauses such as this one, the Subject (i.e. the pronoun you) is expected to be left implicit. In line 3, the Complement of the clause is ellipsed and what must be retrieved is a Great Wizard, as in Aren’t you a Great Wizard?

For the grammar analyst, ellipsis is perhaps more important than any other type of cohesion because it is signified by an understanding based on the absence of some structure. In terms of the multifunctional analysis of the clause, the meaning obtained in the clause by ellipsis still expresses the same function as if it were expressed. For example, in line 3, the presupposed a Great Wizard expresses, by its null place-holder, the functions of Complement and Attribute. If this empty space is not acknowledged at some point in the analysis of the clause, then the meaning it expresses can easily be ignored or lost. Therefore, an important step must be added to the guidelines to analysing the clause so that the ellipsed items are recognized and included in the analysis. This will be discussed in Chapter 7 as it can be relevant to the process of identifying the clause boundaries.

6.7.2.3 Conjunctions

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 226), conjunctions ‘express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other components in the discourse’. Examples of conjunctions include but, or, and, consequently, because and many others. When conjunctions are used at the beginning of a clause, they function as textual Theme in the textual meaning of the clause and serve to relate the clause to a neighbouring clause. In this sense, they ‘constitute a cohesive bond between the two clauses’ (Halliday, 1994: 324) and are explicit markers of relevance.

In the Oz text, very few instances of conjunctions are found; however, this is only a short extract. There are four uses of conjunctions in thematic roles in total. These are found on lines 1, 3 and 7, as shown in Figure 6.21.

Figure 6.21

Figure 6.21 Examples of cohesive conjunction in Text 6.8

6.8 Summary

This chapter has provided an overview of the textual metafunction from the perspective of the clause and a view of its role in creating text. The focus has been on how to recognize Theme in a variety of different clauses and texts. Theme has been discussed in relation to the three main mood structures (declarative, interrogative and imperative), showing how the configurations of each clause contribute textual meaning. Certain thematic constructions were briefly introduced since they often prove challenging to analyse due to their unexpected thematic structure. Finally the contributions of Theme and other related cohesive devices were introduced in order to understand how they contribute to the creation of text.

This chapter completes the third and final metafunction. As with the two previous chapters, the analysis of this metafunction requires a particular analytical approach. Two steps were added to the guidelines which have been developed so far. The first of these is to locate the experiential Theme of the clause by considering all experiential elements up to and including the Subject. In this step, consideration must also be given to the particular structure of the clause since mood structure determines the expected experiential Theme and certain thematic constructions have a textually motivated Theme, which may deviate from standard declarative clauses. The second step involves checking for any other thematic elements such as textual Themes and/or interpersonal Themes.

The analysis of the textual metafunction can seem misleadingly straightforward. There are some very challenging issues that analysts face when considering this metafunction both from within the clause and from its perspective on the text. Section 6.10 highlights some suggestions for further reading. These should provide an excellent starting point for a deeper understanding of the concepts introduced in this chapter.

6.9 Exercises

Exercise 6.1

Use the guidelines developed so far (see section 6.6.1) to analyse each clause in the text below. You should now be able to analyse all three main strands of meaning: experiential, interpersonal and textual. The clause boundaries have already been identified and the main lexical verb (indicating the process) for each clause has been underlined. You will also need to consider whether any items have been ellipsed (see section 6.7.2.2) before you begin the first step.

‘Bill the Bloodhound’, by P. G. Wodehouse

From P. G. Wodehouse (1917) The Man with Two Left Feet and Other Stories.5

1. There’s a divinity that shapes our ends

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2. Consider the case of Henry Pifield Rice, detective

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3. I must explain Henry early, to avoid disappointment

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4. If I simply said he was a detective

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5. and let it go at that

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6. I should be obtaining the reader’s interest under false pretences

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7. He was really only a sort of detective, a species of sleuth

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8. At Stafford’s International Investigation Bureau in the Strand where he was employed, they did not require him to solve mysteries which had baffled the police

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9. He had never measured a footprint in his life

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10. and what he did not know about bloodstains would have filled a library

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11. The sort of job they gave Henry was to stand outside a restaurant in the rain and note what time someone inside left it

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6.10 Further reading

On cohesion and text:

Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.

Martin, J. 1992. English Text: System and Structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

On cohesion and text:

Berry, M. 1996. ‘What is Theme? – A(nother) personal view’, in M. Berry, C, Butler, R. Fawcett and G. Huang, eds., Meaning and Form: Systemic Functional Interpretations. Meaning and Choice in Language: Studies for Michael Halliday. Norwood, NJ: Ablex: 1–64.

Fawcett, R. 2007b. The Many Types of ‘Theme’ in English: Their Semantic Systems and their Functional Syntax. Research Papers in the Humanities. www.cardiff.ac.uk/chri/researchpapers/humanities/papers1-10/Fawcett4.html.

Fries, P. 1995. ‘Themes, methods of development, and texts’, in R. Hasan and P. Fries, eds., Subject and Theme: A Discourse Functional Perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 317–59.

Halliday, M. A. K. and C. Matthiessen. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 3rd edn. London: Hodder Arnold.

Thompson, G. 2007. ‘Unfolding theme: the development of clausal and textual perspectives on Theme’, in R. Hasan, C. Matthiessen and J. Webster, Continuing Discourse on Language: A Functional Perspective, Vol. 2. London: Equinox: 669–94.

On information structure:

Davies, M. 1994. ‘“I’m sorry, I’ll read that again”: information structure in writing’, in S. U+010Cmejrková and F. Sticha, eds., The Syntax of Sentence and Text. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 75–88.