Combining messages - English Grammar

English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

8. Combining messages

8.1 Sometimes a statement is too complex or detailed to be expressed in a single clause. You make statements of this kind by putting two or more clauses together in one sentence.

There are two ways in which you can do this. One way is to use one clause as a main clause and to add other subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause is a clause that depends on the main clause to complete its meaning, and that cannot form a sentence on its own. For this reason, in some grammars, it is called a dependent clause.

I came because I want you to help me.
I didn’t like the man who did the gardening for them.
You have no right to keep people off your land unless they are doing damage.
When he had gone, Valentina sighed.

The other way is simply to link clauses together.

I’m an old man and I’m sick.
I like films but I don’t go to the cinema very often.

Questions and orders can also consist of more than one clause.

What will I do if he doesn’t come?
If she is ambitious, don’t try to hold her back.

Clauses are explained in Chapters 3 and 5.

conjunctions

8.2 When you put two clauses into one sentence, you use a conjunction to link them and to show the relationship between them.

When he stopped, no one said anything.
They were going by car because it was more comfortable.
The telephone rang and Judy picked it up.
The food looked good, but I was too full to eat.

8.3 There are two types of conjunction. They show the different types of relationship between clauses in a sentence.

subordinating conjunctions

8.4 When you are adding a clause in order to develop an aspect of what you are saying, you use a subordinating conjunction.

The cat jumped onto my father’s lap while he was reading his letters.
He had cancer although it was detected at an early stage.
When the jar was full, he turned the water off.

A clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction is called a subordinate clause.

When an atom is split, it releases neutrons.
If he had won, he would have shared the money.
The house was called Sea View, although there were no sea anywhere in sight.

You can also add subordinate clauses to questions and imperative clauses.

How long is it since you’ve actually taught?
Make a plan before you start.

Sentences containing a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses are often called complex sentences.

There are three main kinds of subordinate clause:

Adverbial clauses: these are dealt with in paragraphs 8.6 to 8.82.

Relative clauses: these are dealt with in paragraphs 8.83 to 8.116.

Nominal that-clauses: those relating to reported speech and thought are referred to as reported clauses, and are dealt with in Chapter 7; those relating to facts are dealt with in paragraphs 8.117 to 8.128.

coordinating conjunctions

8.5 If you are simply linking clauses, you use a coordinating conjunction.

Her son lives at home and has a steady job.
He’s a shy man, but he’s not scared of anything or anyone.

You can also put coordinating conjunctions between questions and between imperative clauses.

Did you buy those curtains or do you make your own?
Visit your local dealer or phone for a brochure.

Clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction are called coordinate clauses.

She turned and left the room.

Sentences that contain coordinate clauses are sometimes called compound sentences.

A full explanation of coordinate clauses is given in paragraphs 8.149 to 8.163. Other uses of coordinating conjunctions are explained in paragraphs 8.164 to 8.201.

Adverbial clauses

8.6 There are eight types of adverbial clause:

type of clause

usual conjunction

paragraphs

time clauses

when, before, after since, while, as, until

paragraphs 8.8 to 8.24

conditional clauses

if, unless

paragraphs 8.25 to 8.42

purpose clauses

in order to, so that

paragraphs 8.43 to 8.48

reason clauses

because, since, as

paragraphs 8.49 to 8.53

result clauses

so that

paragraphs 8.54 to 8.64

concessive clauses

although, though, while

paragraphs 8.65 to 8.72

place clauses

where, wherever

paragraphs 8.73 to 8.77

clauses of manner

as, like, the way

paragraphs 8.78 to 8.82

Non-finite clauses, when they begin with a subordinating conjunction, are dealt with in the sections dealing with adverbial clauses. Non-finite clauses that do not begin with a subordinating conjunction are dealt with separately in paragraphs 8.129 to 8.145. Other structures that function like non-finite clauses are described in paragraphs 8.146 to 8.148.

position of adverbial clause

8.7 The usual position for an adverbial clause is just after the main clause.

I couldn’t think of a single thing to say after he’d replied like that.
The performances were cancelled because the leading man was ill.

However, most types of adverbial clause can be put in front of a main clause.

When the city is dark, we can move around easily.
Although crocodiles are inactive for long periods, on occasion they can run very fast indeed.

Occasionally, you can put an adverbial clause in the middle of another clause.

They make allegations which, when you analyse them, do not have too many facts behind them.

There are a few types of adverbial clause that always go after a main clause; other types always go in front of one. This is explained in the sections dealing with the different types of clause.

Time clauses: When I was young, …

8.8Time clauses are used for saying when something happens, by referring to a period of time or to another event.

Her father died when she was young.
Stocks of food cannot be brought in before the rains start.
He was detained last Monday after he returned from a business trip overseas. When I first arrived I didn’t know anyone.

Time clauses can be used after time adverbials.

We’ll give him his presents tomorrow, before he goes to school.
I want to see you for a few minutes at twelve o’clock, when you go to lunch.

Time adverbials are explained in Chapter 4.

tenses in time clauses

8.9 When you are talking about the past or the present, the verb in a time clause has the same tense that it would have in a main clause or in a simple sentence.

I was standing by the window when I heard her speak.
I look after the children while she goes to Denver.

However, if the time clause refers to something that will happen or exist in the future, you use the present simple, not the future.

For example, you say When he comes, I will show him the book, not When he will come, I will show him the book.

As soon as we get the tickets, we’ll send them to you.
He wants to see you before he dies.
Let me stay here till Jeannie comes home.

If you mention an event in a time clause that will happen before an event referred to in the main clause, you use the present perfect in the time clause, not the future perfect.

For example, you say When you have had your supper, come and see me, not When you will have had your supper, come and see me.

We won’t be getting married until we’ve saved enough money.
Come and tell me when you have finished.

8.10 The most common conjunction in time clauses is when. When is used to say that something happened, happens, or will happen on a particular occasion.

When the telegram came and I read of his death, I couldn’t believe it.
He didn’t know how to behave when they next met.

8.11 You can mention the circumstances in which something happens or happened by using when, while, or as.

The train has automatic doors that only open when the train is stationary. While he was still in the stable, there was a loud knock at the front door.
He would swim beside me as I rowed in the little dinghy.

Whilst is a more formal form of while.

We chatted whilst the children played in the crèche.

Whilst is not used in modern American English.

USAGE NOTE

8.12 If you want to emphasize that something happened at a particular time, you can use It was followed by an expression such as six o’clock or three hours later, followed by a when-clause.

For example, instead of saying I left at six o’clock, you say It was six o’clock when I left.

It was about half past eight when he arrived at Gatwick.
It was late when he returned.

This is an example of a split sentence. Split sentences are explained in paragraphs 9.25 to 9.30.

repeated events

8.13 If you want to say that something always happened or happens in particular circumstances, you use when, whenever, every time, or each time.

When he talks about Ireland, he does sound like an outsider.
Whenever she had a cold, she ate only fruit.
Every time I go to that class I panic.
He looked away each time she spoke to him.

8.14 You use an expression such as the first time, the next time, or the third time to say that something happened during one occurrence of an event.

The last time we talked he said he needed another two days.
The next time I come here, I’m going to be better.

events in sequence

8.15 You can also use when, after, or once to talk about one event happening immediately after another.

When his wife left him he suffered terribly.
Stop me when you’ve had enough.
The turtle returns to the sea after it has laid its eggs.
Once the damage is done, it takes many years for the system to recover.

If you want to say how long one event happened after another, you put a noun phrase such as two days or three years in front of after.

Exactly six weeks after she had arrived, she sent a cable to her husband and caught the plane back to New York.

As soon as, directly, immediately, the moment, the minute, and the instant are all used to talk about one event happening a very short time after another.

They heard voices as soon as they pushed open the door.
The minute someone left the room, the others started talking about them.
Immediately the meal was over, it was time for prayer.

 The words directly and immediately are not used as conjunctions in American English.

8.16 When you want to say that something happened, happens, or will happen at an earlier time than something else, you use before.

It was necessary for them to find a home before the cold weather arrived.
Before they moved to the city she had never seen a car.

If you want to say how long one event happened before another, you put a noun phrase such as three weeks or a short time in front of before.

He had a review with the second organiser, about a month before the report was written.
Long before you return she will have forgotten you.

8.17 When you are telling a story, you sometimes want to say what was happening when a particular event occurred. You first say what was happening, then add a clause beginning with when in which you mention the event.

I had just finished my meal when I heard voices.
He was having his dinner when the telephone rang.

If you want to say that one event happened a very short time after another, you use a clause in the past perfect, followed by a time clause in the past simple. After had in the first clause, you put no sooner or hardly.

When you use no sooner, the time clause begins with than.

I had no sooner checked into the hotel than he arrived with the appropriate documents.

When you use hardly, the time clause begins with when or before.

He had hardly got his eyes open before she told him that they were leaving.

No sooner or, less frequently, hardly can be put at the beginning of the first clause, followed by had and the subject.

No sooner had he asked the question than the answer came to him.
Hardly had he settled into his seat when Alan came bursting in.
Hardly had he got on his horse before people started firing at him.

8.18 When something is the case because of a new situation, you can say what is the case and then add a subordinate clause saying what the new situation is. The subordinate clause begins with now that. In British English you can leave out that.

He could travel much faster now that he was alone.
I feel better now I’ve talked to you.

saying when a situation began

8.19 If you want to say that a situation started to exist at a particular time and still exists, you use since or ever since. In the time clause, you use the past simple.

I’ve been in politics since I was at university.
It’s been making money ever since it opened.

You also use since or ever since to say that a situation started to exist at a particular time, and still existed at a later time. In the time clause, you use the past simple or the past perfect.

He had been tired ever since he started work.
Janine had been busy ever since she had heard the news.

If you are mentioning someone’s age at the time when a situation started, you always use the past simple.

I was seven years older than Wendy and had known her since she was twelve.

Since is also used in reason clauses. This is explained in paragraph 8.50.

saying when a situation ends

8.20 If you want to say that a situation stopped when something happened, you use until or till.

I stayed there talking to them until I saw Sam Ward leave the building.
We waited till they arrived.

You also use until or till to say that a situation will stop when something happens in the future. In the time clause you use the present simple or the present perfect.

Stay with me until I go.
We’ll support them till they find work.
Tell him I won’t discuss anything until I’ve spoken to my wife.

8.21By which time, at which point, after which, whereupon, and upon which are also used at the beginning of time clauses.

You use by which time to say that something had already happened or will already have happened before the event you have just mentioned.

He was diagnosed in 1999, by which time he was already very ill.

You use at which point to say that something happened immediately after the event you have just mentioned.

The company closed in the late seventies, at which point he retired.

You use after which to say that a situation started to exist or will start to exist after the event you have just mentioned.

The items were removed for chemical analysis, after which they were never seen again.

You use whereupon or upon which to say that something happened immediately after the event you have just mentioned and was a result of it. Both of these uses are rather formal.

His department was shut down, whereupon he returned to Calcutta.
I told Dr Johnson of this, upon which he called for Joseph.

USAGE NOTE

8.22 You can use a clause beginning with when after a question beginning with why. For example, you can say Why should I help her when she never helps me? However this clause is not a time clause. In your question, you are expressing surprise or disagreement at something that has been said, and the when-clause indicates the reason for your surprise or disagreement.

Why should he do me an injury when he has already saved my life?
Why worry her when it’s all over?

using non-finite clauses

8.23 Instead of using a finite time clause, you can often use a non-finite clause, that is, a clause that contains an -ing or -ed participle.

For example, you can say I often read a book when travelling by train, meaning I often read a book when I am travelling by train, and you can say When finished, the building will be opened by the Prince of Wales, meaning When it is finished, the building will be opened by the Prince of Wales.

Adults sometimes do not realize their own strength when dealing with children.
Mark watched us while pretending not to.
I deliberately didn’t read the book before going to see the film.
After complaining of a headache for a few days, Gerry agreed to see a doctor.
They had not spoken a word since leaving the party.
Michael used to look surprised when praised.
Once convinced about an idea, he pursued it relentlessly.

Note that you can only use a clause like this when it does not need to have a new subject, that is, when it is about the same thing as the main clause.

using prepositional phrases and adjectives

8.24 For some statements about time, you can use a phrase consisting of when, while, once, until, or till, followed by a prepositional phrase or an adjective.

For example, you can say, When in Paris, you should visit the Louvre, meaning When you are in Paris, you should visit the Louvre.

He had read of her experiences while at Oxford.
When under threat, they can become violent.
Steam or boil them until just tender.

You can use a phrase consisting of when, whenever, where, or wherever and an adjective such as necessary or possible.

For example, you can say You should take exercise whenever possible, meaning You should take exercise whenever it is possible.

She spoke rarely, and then only when necessary.
Try to speak the truth whenever possible.
Help must be given where necessary.
All experts agree that, wherever possible, children should learn to read in their own way.

Conditional clauses: If I had more money, …

8.25 When you want to talk about a possible situation and its consequences, you use a conditional clause.

Conditional clauses are used:

to talk about a situation that sometimes exists or existed

If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
Government cannot operate effectively unless it is free to take its own decisions.
If I saw him in the street, he’d just say Good morning.

to talk about a situation that you know does not exist

If England had a hot climate, the attitude would be different.
If I could afford it I would buy a boat.

to talk about a situation when you do not know whether it exists or not

If he is right it would be possible once more to manage the economy in the old way.
The interval seemed unnecessary, unless it was to give them a break.

to talk about a situation that may exist in the future.

If I leave my job I’ll have no money to live on.
If I went back on the train it’d be cheaper.
Don’t bring her unless she’s ready.

8.26 Conditional clauses usually begin with if or unless.

You use if to say that a consequence of something happening or being the case would be that something else would happen or be the case.

If you do that I shall be very pleased. If I asked for something I got it.
They will even clean your car if you ask them to.

When an if-clause is put first, then is sometimes put at the beginning of the main clause.

If this is what was happening in the Sixties, then I’m glad I wasn’t around then.

Unless means except if. For example, You will fail your exams unless you work harder means You will fail your exams except if you work harder.

There can be no new growth unless the ground is cleared.
Nobody gets anything unless they ask for it.

Clauses beginning with unless usually go after a main clause.

modals and imperatives

8.27 When you are using a conditional clause, you often use a modal in the main clause.

You always use a modal in the main clause when you are talking about a situation that does not exist.

If you weren’t here, she would get rid of me in no time.
If anybody had asked me, I could have told them what happened.

Modals are explained in paragraphs 5.92 to 5.256.

Conditional clauses are often used with imperative structures.

If you dry your washing outdoors, wipe the line first.
If it’s four o’clock in the morning, don’t expect them to be pleased to see you.

Imperative structures are explained in paragraphs 5.4 and 5.35 to 5.39.

verb forms in conditional sentences

8.28 There are special rules about which verb form to use in conditional sentences.

People often describe conditional structures in terms of three, or sometimes four (see zero conditional below), categories:

the first conditional, in which the verb in the main clause is will or shall and the verb in the conditional clause is in the present simple.

I’ll scream if you say that again.

the second conditional, in which the verb in the main clause is would or should and the verb in the conditional clause is in the past simple.

If I had more time, I would happily offer to help.

the third conditional, in which the verb in the main clause is would have or should have and the verb in the conditional clause is in the past perfect.

If I had tried a bit harder, I would have passed that exam.

the zero conditional, in which the verb in both clauses is in the present simple.

Water boils if you heat it to 100°C.

Many conditionals do follow these patterns. There are, however, various other normal patterns of tense in conditional clauses, which are set out in the following paragraphs.

talking about things that often happen

8.29 When you are talking about something that often happens, you use the present simple or the present progressive in the conditional clause and in the main clause.

If a big dog approaches me, I panic.
He never rings me up unless he wants something.
If the baby’s crying, she probably needs feeding.
If an advertisement conveys information which is false or misleading, the advertiser is committing an offence.

talking about things that often happened in the past

8.30 When you are talking about something that often happened in the past, you use the past simple or the past progressive in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use the past simple or a modal.

They sat on the grass if it was fine.
If it was raining, we usually stayed indoors.
If anyone came, they’d say How are you?
If they wanted to go out, I would stay with the baby.
I could not fall asleep unless I did an hour of yoga.

possible situations

8.31 When you are talking about a possible situation in the present, you usually use the present simple or the present perfect in the conditional clause. In the main clause you usually use a modal.

If anyone doubts this, they should look at the facts.
Unless you’ve tried it, you can’t imagine how pleasant it is.

If-clauses of this kind are sometimes used when you are offering to do something, or giving permission for something to be done. You use a modal in the main clause, and the subordinate clause consists of if, a pronoun, and want, like, or wish.

I’ll teach you, if you want.
You can leave if you like.

things that might happen in the future

8.32 When you are talking about something that might happen in the future, you use the present simple in the conditional clause, and will or shall in the main clause.

If I survive this experience, I’ll never leave you again.

Willie will never achieve anything unless he is pushed.

USAGE NOTE

8.33 A more formal way of talking about a possible future situation is to use should in the conditional clause. For example, instead of saying If anything happens, I will return immediately, you can say If anything should happen, I will return immediately. In the main clause you use a modal, usually will or would.

If that should happen, you will be blamed.

Another way of talking about a possible future situation is to use were and a to-infinitive in a conditional clause. For example, instead of saying If he goes, I will go too, you can say If he were to go, I would go too. In the main clause you use would, should, or might.

If we were to move north, we would be able to buy a bigger house.

unlikely situations

8.34 When you are talking about an unlikely situation, you use the past simple in the conditional clause, and would, should, or might in the main clause.

The older men would find it difficult to get a job if they left the farm.
I should be surprised if it was less than five pounds.
If I frightened them, they might run away and I would never see them again.

In the conditional clause, were is sometimes used instead of was, especially after I.

If I were a guy, I would look like my dad.
If I were asked to define my condition, l’d say bored.

what might have been

8.35 When you are talking about something that might have happened in the past but did not happen, you use the past perfect in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use would have, could have, should have, or might have.

Perhaps if he had realized that, he would have run away while there was still time.
If she had not been ill, she would probably have won that race.

putting the verb first

8.36 In formal or literary English, if the first verb in an if-clause is should, were, or had, this verb is sometimes put at the beginning of the clause and if is omitted. For example, instead of saying If any visitors should come, I will say you are not here, someone might say Should any visitors come, I will say you are not here.

Should ministers demand an inquiry, we would welcome it.
Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions.
Were they to stop advertising, prices would be significantly reduced.
Had I known how important it was, I would have filmed the occasion.

USAGE NOTE

8.37 Instead of using a conditional clause containing the word be, you can sometimes use a phrase consisting of if followed by an adjective or a prepositional phrase. For example, instead of saying We will sell the car, if it is necessary, you can say We will sell the car, if necessary.

This unfortunate situation is to be avoided if possible.
If I were innocent, I’d rather be tried here; if guilty, in America.
If in doubt, ask at your local library.

necessary conditions

8.38 If you want to say that one situation is necessary for another, you use provided, providing, as long as, so long as, or only if. Provided and providing are often followed by that.

Ordering is quick and easy provided you have access to the internet.
Provided that it’s not too much money I’d love to come to Spain.
The oven bakes magnificent bread providing it is hot enough.
They are happy for the world to stay as it is, as long as they are comfortable.
These activities can flourish only if agriculture and rural industry are flourishing.

When you are using only if, you can put the only in the main clause, separated from the if. For example, instead of saying I will come only if he wants me, you can say I will only come if he wants me.

He told them that disarmament was only possible if Britain changed her foreign policy.

Another way of saying that one situation is necessary for another is to use a conditional clause consisting of if followed by the subject, a form of be, and a to-infinitive clause. In the main clause, you say what is necessary using must.

It’s late, and if I am to get any sleep I must go.
If you are to escape, you must leave me and go on alone.

8.39 If you want to say that one situation would not affect another, you can use even if.

I would have married her even if she had been penniless.
Even if you don’t get the job this time, there will be many exciting opportunities in the future.

Even if is also used in concessive clauses. This is explained in paragraph 8.67.

8.40 If you want to say that a situation would not be affected by any of two or more things, you use whether. You put or between the different possibilities.

Catching a frog can be a difficult business, whether you’re a human or a bird or a reptile. Whether you go to a launderette or do your washing at home, the routine is the same.

If you want to say that what happens would not be affected by either of two opposite situations, you use a clause beginning with whether or not.

Whether or not people have religious faith, they can believe in the power of love.
I get an electrician to check all my electrical appliances every autumn, whether or not they are giving trouble.

Or not can be put at the end of the clause.

Whether I agreed or not, the search would take place.

USAGE NOTE

8.41  When the verb in a whether-clause is be, the subjunctive is sometimes used. When you use the subjunctive, you use the base form of a verb rather than the third person singular. This is considered rather formal in British English, but is common in American English.

Always report such behaviour to the nearest person in authority, whether it be a school teacher or a policeman, or anyone else.

When the verb in a whether-clause is be and the subject is a personal pronoun such as they or it, you can omit be and the pronoun. For example, instead of saying All the villagers, whether they are young or old, help with the harvest, you can say All the villagers, whether young or old, help with the harvest.

A fresh pepper, whether red or green, lasts about three weeks.
They help people, whether tourists or students, to learn more of our past.

8.42 When you want to say that something is the case and that it does not matter which person, place, cause, method, or thing is involved, you use whoever, wherever, however, whatever, or whichever.

Whoever wins this civil war, there will be little rejoicing at the victory.
Wherever it is, you aren’t going.
However it began, the battle would always develop into a large-scale conflict.

Whatever and whichever are used either as determiners or pronouns.

Whatever car you drive, keep fixing it and keep it forever.
The deficit is extremely important this year, whatever they say.
Whichever way you do it, it’s hard work.
Whichever you decide, I’m sure it will be just fine.

Another way of saying that it does not matter who or what is involved is to use no matter followed by who, where, how, what, or which.

Most people, no matter who they are, seem to have at least one.
Our aim is to recruit the best person for the job, no matter where they are from.
No matter how I’m playing, I always get that special feeling.

Purpose clauses: He did it in order to make her happy

8.43 When you want to talk about the purpose of an action, you use a purpose clause.

Here is a list of the most common conjunctions used in purpose clauses:

in order that

in order to

so

so as to

so that

to

types of purpose clause

8.44 There are two kinds of purpose clause.

Clauses containing a to-infinitive are the most common.

They had to take some of his land in order to extend the churchyard.
Farmers have put up barricades to prevent people moving on to their land.

The subject of this type of purpose clause is always the same as the subject of the main clause.

This type of purpose clause is explained in paragraphs 8.45 to 8.46.

Other purpose clauses usually contain that.

Be as clear and factual as possible in order that there may be no misunderstanding.

This type of purpose clause is explained in paragraphs 8.47 to 8.48.

to-infinitive clauses

8.45To-infinitive purpose clauses usually begin with in order to or so as to.

They were pushing in order to get to the front.
We had to borrow money in order to buy the house.
We fixed up a screen so as to let in the fresh air and keep out the flies.

If you want to make one of these clauses negative, you put not in front of the to.

Rose trod with care in order not to spread the dirt.
When removing a stain, work from the edge inwards so as not to enlarge the area affected.

8.46 Some purpose clauses can simply be to-infinitive clauses.

People would stroll down the path to admire the garden.
The children sleep together to keep warm.
To understand what is happening now, we need to think about what has been achieved.

However, you cannot use a negative with one of these structures. You cannot say, for example, We keep the window shut not to let the flies in. You would have to say, We keep the window shut in order not to let the flies in.

that-clauses

8.47 Other purpose clauses usually begin with in order that, so that, or so. They usually contain a modal.

If the verb in the main clause is in the present or in the present perfect, you usually use one of the modals can, may, will, or shall in the purpose clause.

…people who are learning English in order that they can study a particular subject.

If the verb in the main clause is in the past, you usually use could, might, should, or would in the purpose clause.

A stranger had lifted Philip up on his shoulder so that he could see better.
I bought six cows so that we would have some milk to sell.
She wanted the meal ready at six so she could go out at eight.

Ordinary verbs are occasionally used instead of modals, especially in negative purpose clauses.

Make sure you get plenty of rest, so that you don’t fall asleep at work.

So that is also used in result clauses. This use is explained in paragraphs 8.55 and 8.56.

8.48 In formal or old-fashioned English, lest is sometimes used at the beginning of a purpose clause to say what an action is intended to prevent.

For example, They built a statue of him lest people should forget what he had done means the same as They built a statue of him so that people would not forget what he had done.

He spoke in whispers lest the servants should hear him.

In clauses beginning with lest, you use either the subjunctive or a modal.

Reason clauses: … because I wanted to win

8.49 When you want to give the reason for something, you use a reason clause.

Here is a list of the main conjunctions used in reason clauses:

as

because

in case

just in case

since

8.50 If you are simply giving the reason for something, you use because, since, or as.

I couldn’t be angry with him because I liked him too much.
I didn’t know that she was married, since she rarely talked about herself.
As we had plenty of time, we decided to go for a coffee.

8.51 You use in case or just in case when you are mentioning a possible future situation which is someone’s reason for doing something. In the reason clause, you use the present simple.

Mr Woods, I am here just in case anything out of the ordinary happens.

When you are talking about someone’s reason for doing something in the past, you use the past simple in the reason clause.

He did not sit down in case his trousers got creased.

8.52In that, inasmuch as, insofar as, and to the extent that are used to say why a statement you have just made is true. These are formal expressions.

I’m in a difficult situation in that I have been offered two jobs and they both sound interesting.
Censorship is ineffective inasmuch as it does not protect anyone.
We are traditional insofar as we write traditional-style songs, but we try and write about modern issues.
He feels himself to be dependent to the extent that he is not free to make his own decisions.

Inasmuch as is sometimes written as In as much as, and insofar as is sometimes written as in so far as.

8.53 People sometimes use reason clauses beginning with for or seeing that. For means the same as because. Its use in reason clauses is now considered to be old-fashioned.

I hesitate, for I am not quite sure of my facts.

Seeing that means the same as since. It is used only in informal speech.

Seeing that you’re the guest on this little trip, I won’t tell you what I think of your behaviour last night.

Now and now that are used to say that a new situation is the reason for something. Clauses beginning with now or now that are dealt with as time clauses. They are explained in paragraph 8.18.

Result clauses: I’ll drive you there so that you won’t be late

8.54 When you want to talk about the result of something, you use a result clause.

Result clauses always come after the main clause.

8.55 Result clauses usually begin with so that.

You can use so that simply to say what the result of an event or situation was.

My suitcase had become damaged, so that the lid would not stay closed.
A storm had brought the sea into the house, so that they had been forced to escape by a window.
There’s a window above the bath so that when I’m relaxing here I can watch the sky.

So, and so, and and can also be used.

She was having great difficulty getting her car out, and so I had to move my car to let her out.
He was shot in the chest and died.

With these result clauses, you usually put a comma after the main clause.

8.56 You can also use so that to say that something is or was done in a particular way to achieve a desired result.

For example, He fixed the bell so that it would ring when anyone came in means He fixed the bell in such a way that it would ring when anyone came in.

Explain it so that a 10-year-old could understand it.
They arranged things so that they never met.

With these result clauses, you do not put a comma after the main clause.

8.57So that is also used in purpose clauses. This use is explained in paragraph 8.47.

USAGE NOTE

8.58So and that are also used in a special kind of structure to say that a result happens because something has a quality to a particular extent, or because something is done in an extreme way.

In these structures, so is used in front of an adjective or adverb. A that-clause is then added.

The crowd was so large that it overflowed the auditorium.
They were so surprised they didn’t try to stop him.
He dressed so quickly that he put his boots on the wrong feet.
She had fallen down so often that she was covered in mud.

Sometimes as is used instead of that. As is followed by a to-infinitive clause.

…small beaches of sand so white as to dazzle the eye.
I hope that nobody was so stupid as to go around saying those things.

8.59So and that can also be used in this way with many, few, much, and little.

We found so much to talk about that it was late at night when we remembered the time.
There were so many children you could hardly get in the room.

USAGE NOTE

8.60 When the verb in the main clause is be or when an auxiliary is used, the normal order of words is often changed for greater emphasis. So is put at the beginning of the sentence, followed by the adjective, adverb, or noun. Beor the auxiliary is placed in front of the subject.

For example, instead of saying The room was so tiny that you could not get a bed into it, you can say So tiny was the room that you could not get a bed into it.

So successful have they been that they are moving to Bond Street.
So rapid is the rate of progress that advance seems to be following advance on almost a monthly basis.

8.61Such and that are also used to say that a result happens because something has a quality to a particular extent. You put such in front of a noun, and then add a that-clause.

If the noun is a singular countable noun, you put a or an in front of it.

I slapped her hand and she got such a shock that she dropped the bag.
She was in such pain that she almost collapsed.
These birds have such small wings that they cannot get into the air.

8.62Such is sometimes used in a similar structure as an adjective with the meaning so great. The that-clause goes immediately after it.

The extent of the disaster was such that the local authorities were quite unable to cope.

Sometimes such is put at the beginning of a sentence, followed by be, a noun phrase, and the that-clause. For example, instead of saying Her beauty was such that they could only stare, you can say Such was her beauty that they could only stare.

Such is the power of suggestion that within a very few minutes she fell asleep.

8.63 You can also use such as an adjective to say that a result is obtained by something being of a particular kind. Such is followed by a that-clause or by as and a to-infinitive clause.

The dangers are such that an organized tour is a more sensible option.
Conditions in prison should be such as to lessen the chances of prisoners reoffending.

You can use the expression in such a way to say that a result is obtained by something being done in a particular way. It is followed by a that-clause or by as and a to-infinitive clause.

She had been taught to behave in such a way that her parents would have as quiet a life as possible.
Is it right that this high tax should be spent in such a way as to give benefit mainly to the motorist?

8.64 You use otherwise, else, or or else to say that a result of something not happening or not being the case would be that something else would happen or be the case.

For example, Give me back my money, otherwise I’ll ring the police means If you don’t give me back my money, I’ll ring the police.

I want a house I’ll like, otherwise I’ll get depressed.
I must have done something wrong, or else they wouldn’t have kept me here.

Concessive clauses: I love books, although I don’t read much

8.65 Sometimes you want to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising. You can put both statements into one sentence by using a concessive clause.

Here is a list of conjunctions used in concessive clauses:

although

despite

even if

even though

except that

in spite of

much as

not that

though

whereas

while

whilst

contrast

8.66 If you simply want to contrast two statements, you use although, though, even though, or while.

I used to read a lot although I don’t get much time for books now.
Though he has lived for years in London, he writes in German.
I used to love listening to her, even though I couldn’t understand what she said.
While I did well in class, I was a poor performer at games.

The fairly formal words whilst and whereas can also be used.

Raspberries have a hairy surface whilst blackberries have a shiny skin.
To every child, adult approval means love, whereas disapproval can cause strong feelings of rejection.

Whilst is not used in American English.

8.67 If you want to say that something which is probably true does not affect the truth of something else, you use even if.

All this is part of modern commercial life (even if it is an essential activity).
He’s beginning to be a different person, even if he doesn’t realize it.

Even if is also used in conditional clauses. This use is explained in paragraph 8.39.

8.68 You can use not that instead of using although and a negative. For example, instead of saying I have decided to leave, although no one will miss me, you can say I have decided to leave, not that anyone will miss me.

Clauses beginning with not that always go after a main clause.

He’s got a new girlfriend, not that I care.
I think I looked very chic for the party, not that anyone noticed.

exceptions

8.69 If you want to mention an exception to a statement that you have just made, you use except that.

She treats her daughter the same as her younger boy except that she takes her several times a week to a special clinic.
Nobody said a thing except that one or two asked me if I was better.

This kind of clause is sometimes called an exception clause.

USAGE NOTE

8.70 When a clause beginning with though ends with a linking verb like be or seem and a noun or an adjective (= a complement), the complement can be brought forward to the beginning of the clause. For example, instead of saying Though he was tired, he insisted on coming to the meeting, you can say Tired though he was, he insisted on coming to the meeting.

Tempting though it may be to discuss this point, it is not really relevant.
I had to accept the fact, improbable though it was.
Astute business man though he was, Philip was capable of making mistakes.

When the complement is an adjective, you can use as instead of though.

Stupid as it sounds, I believed her.

When a clause beginning with though ends with an adverb, you can often put the adverb at the beginning of the clause.

Some members of staff couldn’t handle Murray’s condition, hard though they tried.

When you are talking about a strong feeling or desire, you can use much as instead of although. For example, instead of saying Although I like Venice, I couldn’t live there you can say Much as I like Venice, I couldn’t live there.

Much as he admired her, he had no wish to marry her.

-ing participle clauses

8.71Although, though, while, and whilst are sometimes used in -ing participle clauses. For example, instead of saying While he liked cats, he never let them come into his house, you can say While liking cats, he never let them come into his house.

While accepting the importance of freedom of speech, I believe it must be exercised with responsibility.

Despite and in spite of can also be used at the beginning of -ing participle clauses. Despite working hard, I failed my exams means Although I worked hard, I failed my exams.

Sensible, interested parents still play a big part in their children’s lives, despite working long hours.
We had two more years of profit in spite of paying higher wages than the previous owner.

8.72Although, though, while, and whilst are also used in front of noun, adjective, and adverb phrases. For example, instead of saying Although she was fond of Gregory, she did not love him, you can say Although fond of Gregory, she did not love him. Similarly, instead of saying They agreed to his proposal, though they had many reservations, you can say They agreed to his proposal, though with many reservations.

It was an unequal marriage, although a stable and long-lasting one.
Though not very attractive physically, she possessed a sense of humour.
They had followed her suggestion, though without much enthusiasm.

Even if, if, and albeit can also be used in this way. Albeit is a formal word.

Other species have cognitive abilities, even if not as developed as our own. …a pleasant, if unexciting, novel.
Like mercury, lead affects the brain, albeit in different ways.

Place clauses: Stay where you are

8.73 Sometimes, when you want to talk about the location or position of something, you need to use a clause. The kind of clause you use is called a place clause.

8.74 Place clauses usually begin with where.

He said he was happy where he was.
He left it where it lay.
Stay where you are.

Where is also used in relative clauses. This use is explained in paragraphs 8.104 to 8.106.

8.75 In formal or literary English, where-clauses are sometimes put in front of a main clause.

Where Kate had stood last night, Maureen now stood.
Where the pink cliffs rose out of the ground there were often narrow tracks winding upwards.

8.76 When you want to say that something happens or will happen in every place where something else happens, you use wherever.

Soft ferns spread across the ground wherever there was enough light.
In Bali, wherever you go, you come across ceremonies.
Wherever I looked, I found patterns.

Everywhere can be used instead of wherever.

Everywhere I went, people were angry or suspicious.

8.77Where and wherever are sometimes used in front of adjectives such as possible and necessary. When they are used like this, they mean when or whenever, rather than where. For a full explanation of this use, see paragraph 8.24.

Clauses of manner: I don’t know why he behaves as he does

8.78 When you want to talk about someone’s behaviour or the way something is done, you use a clause of manner.

Here is a list of conjunctions used in clauses of manner:

as

as though

like

as if

just as

much as

The way, in a way, and in the way are also used in clauses of manner in a similar way to conjunctions. These expressions are often followed by that.

saying how something is done

8.79 If you simply want to talk about someone’s behaviour or the way something is done, you use like, as, the way, in a way, or in the way.

Is she often rude and cross like she’s been this last month?
I don’t understand why he behaves as he does.
I was never allowed to do things the way I wanted to do them.
He was looking at her in a way she did not recognize.
We have to make it work in the way that we want it to.

making comparisons

8.80 You can also use these expressions to compare the way something is done with the way someone or something else does it.

Surely you don’t intend to live by yourself like she does?
Joyce looked at her the way a lot of girls did.

If you want to make a strong comparison, you use just as.

You can think of him and feel proud, just as I do.

If you want to make a fairly weak comparison, you use much as.

These tanks speed across the desert, much as they did in World War II.

8.81 You sometimes want to say that something is done in the way that it would be done if something were the case. You do this by using as if or as though. You use a past tense in the clause of manner.

He holds his head forward as if he has hit it too often on low doorways.
Presidents can’t dispose of companies as if people didn’t exist.
I put some water on my clothes to make it look as though I had been sweating.
He behaved as though it was nothing to be ashamed of.

You also use as if or as though after linking verbs such as feel or look. You do this when you are comparing someone’s feelings or appearance to the feelings or appearance they would have if something were the case.

She felt as if she had a fever.
His hair looked as if it had been combed with his fingers.
Her pink dress and her frilly umbrella made her look as though she had come to a garden party.

In formal English, were is sometimes used instead of was in clauses beginning with as if or as though.

She shook as if she were crying, but she made no sound.
I felt as if I were the centre of the universe.
You talk as though he were already dead.

You can use just in front of as if or as though for emphasis.

He shouldn’t have left her alone, just as if she was someone of no importance at all.

8.82 You can also use as if and as though in clauses that begin with a to-infinitive or a participle.

For a few moments, he sat as if stunned.
He ran off to the house as if escaping.
He shook his head as though dazzled by his own vision.

You can also use as if and as though in front of adjectives and prepositional phrases.

One must row steadily onwards as if intent on one’s own business.
He shivered as though with cold.

Relative clauses

8.83 When you mention someone or something in a sentence, you often want to give further information about them. One way to do this is to use a relative clause.

You put a relative clause immediately after the noun that refers to the person, thing, or group you are talking about.

The man who came into the room was small and slender.
Opposite is St. Paul’s Church, where you can hear some lovely music.

Relative clauses have a similar function to adjectives, and they are sometimes called adjectival clauses.

Nominal relative clauses, which have a similar function to noun phrases, are explained in paragraphs 8.112 to 8.116.

relative pronouns

8.84 Many relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun usually acts as the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause.

He is the only person who might be able to help.
Most of them have a job, which they take both for the money and the company.

Here is a list of the most common relative pronouns:

that

which

who

whom

whose

Relative pronouns do not have masculine, feminine, or plural forms. The same pronoun can be used to refer to a man, a woman, or a group of people.

She didn’t recognize the man who had spoken.
I met a girl who knew Mrs Townsend.
There are many people who find this intolerable.

Some relative clauses do not have a relative pronoun.

Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.

This is explained in paragraphs 8.90, 8.91, and 8.96.

types of relative clause

8.85 There are two types of relative clause.

Some relative clauses explain which person or thing you are talking about. For example, if you say I met the woman, it might not be clear who you mean, so you might say, I met the woman who lives next door. In this sentence, who lives next door is called a defining relative clause.

Shortly after the shooting, the man who had done it was arrested.
Mooresville is the town that John Dillinger came from.

Other relative clauses give further information that is not needed to identify the person, thing, or group you are talking about. For example, if you say I saw Miley Cyrus, it is clear who you mean. But you might want to add more information about Miley Cyrus, so you might say, for example, I saw Miley Cyrus, who was staying at the hotel opposite. In this sentence, who was staying at the hotel opposite is called a non-defining relative clause.

He was waving to the girl, who was running along the platform.
He walked down to Broadway, the main street of the town, which ran parallel to the river.

This type of relative clause is used mainly in writing rather than speech.

Note that you cannot begin a non-defining relative clause with that.

punctuation

8.86 A relative clause that simply gives extra information usually has a comma in front of it and a comma after it, unless it is at the end of a sentence, in which case you just put a full stop. Dashes are sometimes used instead of commas.

My son, who is four, loves Spiderman.

You never put a comma or a dash in front of a defining relative clause.

The woman who owns this cabin will come back in the autumn.

use after pronouns

8.87 Relative clauses that distinguish one noun from all others can be used after some pronouns.

They are used after indefinite pronouns such as someone, anyone, and everything.

This is something that I’m very proud of.
In theory anyone who lives or works in the area may be at risk.
We want to thank everyone who supported us through this.

They are sometimes used after some, many, much, several, all, or those.

Like many who met him I was soon in love.
…the feelings of those who have suffered from the effects of crime.

They can also be used after personal pronouns, but only in formal or old-fashioned English.

He who is not for reform is against it.
we who are supposed to be so good at writing.

-ing participle clauses

8.88 Relative clauses can sometimes be reduced to -ing participle clauses.

For example, instead of saying Give it to the man who is wearing the sunglasses, you can say Give it to the man wearing the sunglasses. Similarly, instead of saying The bride, who was smiling happily, chatted to the guests, you can say The bride, smiling happily, chatted to the guests.

These uses are explained in paragraphs 8.129 to 8.145. See also paragraphs 2.300 and 2.301.

Using relative pronouns in defining clauses

8.89 The following paragraphs explain which pronouns you use in defining relative clauses.

referring to people

8.90 When you are referring to a person or group of people, you use who or that as the subject of a defining clause. Who is more common than that.

The man who employed me was called Tom.
…the people who live in the cottage.
…somebody who is really ill.
…the man that made it.

You use who, that, or whom as the object of a defining clause, or you do not use a pronoun at all.

…someone who I haven’t seen for a long time.
…a woman that I dislike.
…distant relatives whom he had never seen.
…a man I know.

You use that as the complement of a defining clause, or you do not use a pronoun.

…the distinguished actress that she later became.
Little is known about the kind of person she was.

After a superlative, you do not usually use a pronoun.

He was the cleverest man I ever knew. …the best thing I ever did.

For more information about superlatives see paragraphs 2.112 to 2.122.

referring to things

8.91 When you are referring to a thing or group of things, you use which or that as the subject of a defining clause. That is much more common than which in American English.

…pasta which came from Milan.
We need to understand the things which are important to people.
There are a lot of things that are wrong.

You use which or that as the object of a defining clause, or you do not use a pronoun.

…shells which my sister had collected.
…the oxygen that it needs.
…one of the things I’ll never forget.

After much or all, you use that. You do not use which.

There was not much that the military men could do.
Happiness is all that matters.

Using relative pronouns in non-defining clauses

8.92 The following paragraphs explain which pronouns you use in non- defining relative clauses.

These clauses cannot be used without a relative pronoun.

referring to people

8.93 When you are referring to a person or group of people, you use who as the subject of a non-defining clause.

Heath Robinson, who died in 1944, was a graphic artist and cartoonist.
The horse’s rider, who has not been named, was too distressed to talk to police.

You use who or whom as the object of a non-defining clause.

Brian, who I do not like, had no idea how to behave properly.
He then became involved in a row with the party chairman, whom he accused of lying.

referring to things

8.94 When you are referring to a thing or group of things, you use which as the subject or object of a non-defining clause.

The treatment, which is being tried by researchers, has helped a large number of patients.
The company, which has about 160 shops, is in financial trouble.
He was a man of considerable wealth, which he spent on his experiments.
…this offer, which few can resist.

Using relative pronouns with prepositions

8.95 A relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition. Usually the preposition goes towards the end of the clause, and not in front of the pronoun.

…the job which I’d been training for.
…the universe that we live in.
…the woman who Muller left his money to.

no pronoun

8.96 Often, in ordinary speech, no pronoun is used.

 Angela was the only person I could talk to.
…that place I used to go to last term.
That’s all we have time for this week.

indirect objects

8.97 When a relative pronoun is the indirect object of a verb, you use to or for. For example, you say the man that she wrote the letter to, not the man that she wrote the letter.

…pieces of work that we give a mark to.

You also use to or for when there is no relative pronoun.

…the girl I sang the song for.

formal use

8.98 In formal English, the preposition can go at the beginning of a clause in front of whom or which.

These are the people to whom Catherine was referring.
…a woman friend with whom Rose used to go for walks.
…questions to which there were no answers.

Note however that you cannot put the preposition at the beginning of a clause in front of who or that.

phrasal verbs

8.99 If the verb in a relative clause is a phrasal verb ending with a preposition, you cannot move the preposition to the beginning of the clause.

…all the things I’ve had to put up with.
…the kind of life he was looking forward to.
There are other problems, which I don’t propose to go into at the moment.

USAGE NOTE

8.100 Words such as some, many, and most can be put in front of of whom or of which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause.

At the school we were greeted by the teachers, most of whom were women.
It is a language shared by several quite diverse cultures, each of which uses it differently.

Numbers can be put before or after of whom.

They act mostly on suggestions from present members (four of whom are women).
There were 80 patients, of whom only one died.

Using whose

8.101 If you want to talk about something relating to the person, thing, or group you are talking about, you use a relative clause beginning with whose and a noun or noun phrase.

For example, instead of saying I am writing a letter to Nigel. His father is ill, you can say I am writing a letter to Nigel, whose father is ill.

Whose can be used in defining or non-defining clauses.

…workers whose bargaining power is weak.
…anyone whose credit card is stolen.
She asked friends whose opinion she respected.
…a country whose population was growing.
The man, whose identity was not released, was attacked at 10 p.m. last night.

The noun after whose can be the subject or object of the verb in the clause, or it can be the object of a preposition. If it is the object of a preposition, the preposition can come at the beginning or end of the clause.

…the governments in whose territories they operate.
…writers whose company he did not care for.

8.102 In written English, of which and of whom are sometimes used instead of whose. You put these expressions after a noun phrase beginning with the.

For example, instead of writing a town whose inhabitants speak French, you can write a town the inhabitants of which speak French.

…a competition the results of which will be announced today.
I travelled in a lorry the back of which the owner had loaded with yams.

Using other relative pronouns

8.103 Some other words and expressions can be used as relative pronouns.

non-defining clauses

8.104 When and where are used in non-defining clauses (that is, clauses that simply add extra information).

I want to see you at 12 o’clock, when you go to your lunch.
My favourite holiday was in 2009, when I went to Jamaica.
He came from Brighton, where Lisa had once spent a holiday.
She took them up the stairs to the art room, where the brushes and paints had been set out.

defining clauses

8.105 When and where can also be used in defining clauses (that is, clauses that distinguish one noun from all others), but only when the clause is preceded by a particular kind of noun.

When-clauses must be preceded by the word time or by the name of a period of time such as day or year.

There was a time when she thought they were wonderful.
This is the year when the profits should start.

Where-clauses must be preceded by the word place or by the name of a kind of place such as room or street.

the place where they work.
the room where I did my homework.
the street where my grandmother had lived.

Note that place names such as China are proper nouns and so do not need to have defining relative clauses after them.

8.106 Where can also be used in defining clauses after words such as circumstances, point, situation and stage.

Increasing poverty has led to a situation where the poorest cannot afford to have children.
In time we reached a stage where we had more male readers than female ones.
There comes a point where it’s impossible to answer.
Compensation was sometimes granted even in circumstances where no injury had occurred.

8.107 Why is used in defining clauses after the word reason.

That is a major reason why they were such poor countries.

Whereby is used in defining clauses after words such as arrangement and system.

the new system whereby everyone pays a fixed amount.
Counselling is a process whereby the person concerned can learn to manage the emotional realities that face them.

USAGE NOTE

8.108 Other expressions can be used in defining clauses in place of when, where, why, and whereby.

After time you can use at which instead of when.

the time at which the original mineral was formed.

After place, room, street, and words such as year and month, you can use in which instead of where or when.

the place in which they found themselves.
the room in which the meeting would be held.
the year in which Lloyd George lost power.

After day you can use on which instead of when.

Sunday was the day on which we were expected to spend some time with my father.

After reason you can use that or no pronoun instead of why.

the reason that non-violence is considered to be a virtue.
That’s the reason I’m checking it now.

After words such as situation, stage, arrangement, or system you can use in which instead of where or whereby.

…a situation in which there’s a real political vacuum.

Additional points about non-defining relative clauses

8.109 In written English, you can use a non-defining clause, that is, a clause that simply gives extra information, to say that one event happened after another.

For example, instead of saying I gave the book to George. George then gave it to Mary, you can say I gave the book to George, who gave it to Mary.

I sold my car to a garage, who sold it to a customer at twice the price.
The hot water ran on to the ice, which promptly melted.
Later he went to New Zealand, where he became a teacher.

commenting on a fact

8.110 You can use a non-defining clause beginning with which to say something about the whole situation described in a main clause, rather than about someone or something mentioned in it.

These computers need only tiny amounts of power, which means that they will run on small batteries.
I never met Brando again, which was a pity.
Before the exam she was a little tense, which was understandable.

commenting on a time or situation

8.111 When you want to add something to what you have said, you sometimes use a non-defining clause beginning with a preposition, which, and a noun, to add extra information. The noun is often a word like time or point, or a very general word for a situation like case or event.

They remain in the pouch for some seven weeks, by which time they are about 10 cm long.
I was told my work was not good enough, at which point I decided to get another job.
Sometimes you may feel too weak to cope with things, in which case do them as soon as it is convenient.

Nominal relative clauses: What you need is

8.112 When it is difficult to refer to something by using a noun phrase, you can sometimes use a special type of relative clause called a nominal relative clause.

What he really needs is a nice cup of tea. Whatever she does will affect the whole family.

8.113 Nominal relative clauses that begin with what can be used. What can mean either the thing that or the things that.

What he said was perfectly true.
They did not like what he wrote.
I believe that is a very good account of what happened.
I’m what’s generally called a dustman.

People often use a what-clause in front of is or was to say what kind of thing they are about to mention.

What I need is a lawyer.
What you have to do is to choose five companies to invest in.

These structures are explained in paragraphs 9.28 to 9.30.

For another use of what in nominal relative clauses see paragraph 8.116.

8.114 Nominal relative clauses that begin with where are usually used after a preposition or after the verb be. Where means the place where.

I crossed the room to where she was sitting.
He lives two streets down from where Mr Sutton works.
This is where I crashed the car.

8.115 Nominal relative clauses beginning with whatever, whoever, or whichever are used to refer to something or someone that is unknown or indefinite.

Whatever is used only to refer to things. Whoever is used to refer to people. Whichever is used to refer to either things or people.

Whatever, whoever, and whichever can be used as pronouns. Whichever is often followed by of.

I’ll do whatever you want.
I want to do whatever I can to help them.
You’ll need written permission from whoever is in charge.
People will choose whichever of these systems they find suits them best.

Whatever and whichever can also be used as determiners.

She had had to rely on whatever books were lying around there.
Choose whichever one of the three methods you fancy.

For more information about whatever, whoever, and whichever see paragraph 8.42.

8.116 What can be used with the same meaning as whatever, both as a pronoun and a determiner.

Do what you like.
We give what help we can.

The main use of what in nominal relative clauses is explained in paragraph 8.113.

Nominal that-clauses

8.117 A nominal that-clause is a type of subordinate clause that functions like a noun, and is introduced by that. When this type of clause is used to say what someone says or thinks (e.g. She said (that) she was leaving), this grammar refers to it as a reported clause.

There are some verbs and adjectives, however, that do not refer to saying or thinking, but that are followed by that-clauses because they refer to actions relating to facts: for example, checking or proving facts.

He checked that both rear doors were safely shut.
Research with animals shows that males will mother an infant as well as any female.

Here is a list of verbs that are not verbs of speech or thought, but can be followed by a that-clause:

arrange

check

demonstrate

determine

ensure

indicate

pretend

prove

require

reveal

show

Note that determine can also be a verb of thought, and reveal can also be a verb of speech. See paragraphs 7.30, 7.38, and 7.48.

Arrange and require are used with a that-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive. Arrange can also be used with a to-infinitive.

They had arranged that I would spend Christmas with them.
They’d arranged to leave at four o’clock.

Demonstrate, prove, reveal, and show can also be followed by a clause beginning with a wh-word that refers to a circumstance involved in a fact.

She took the gun and showed how the cylinder slotted into the barrel.

Prove, require, and show can also be used in the passive followed by a to-infinitive.

No place on Earth can be shown to be safe.

If you want to mention another person involved in these actions, you can put an object after show, use to after demonstrate, indicate, prove, and reveal, and use with after arrange and check.

The children’s attitude showed me that watching violence can affect a child’s behaviour.
This incident proved to me that Ian cannot be trusted.
She arranged with the principal of her school to take some time off.

8.118 If you want to say that something happens, that something is the case, or that something becomes known, you can use a that-clause after happen, transpire, or emerge. The subject of the main clause is impersonal it.

It often happens that someone asks for advice and does not get it.
It just happened that he had a client who rather liked that sort of thing.
It transpired that there was not a word of truth in the letter.
It emerged that, during the afternoon, she had gone home unwell.

Note that the that-clause must be introduced by that.

adjectives with nominal that-clauses: I was afraid that he would fall

8.119 There are many adjectives that can be followed by that-clauses when they come after a linking verb, usually be.

mentioning the cause of a feeling

8.120 If you want to say what causes someone to have a particular feeling, you can mention the cause of the feeling in a that-clause after an adjective describing the feeling.

Everybody was sad that she had to return to America.
I am confident that I shall be able to persuade them to go.
I was worried that she’d say no.

Here is a list of adjectives describing feelings:

afraid

angry

anxious

confident

frightened

glad

happy

pleased

proud

sad

sorry

surprised

upset

worried

saying what someone knows

8.121 If you want to say that someone knows something, you can say what they know in a that-clause after an adjective such as aware or conscious.

He was aware that he had eaten too much.
She is conscious that some people might be offended.

Here is a list of adjectives indicating knowledge:

aware

certain

conscious

convinced

positive

sure

unaware

Aware is occasionally used with a that-clause beginning with a wh-word.

None of our staff were aware what was going on.

commenting on a fact

8.122 If you want to comment on a fact, you can use an adjective describing the fact followed by a that-clause. The linking verb has impersonal it as its subject.

It was sad that people had reacted in the way they did.
It is true that the authority of parliament has declined.
It seems probable that the world can go on producing enough food for everyone.

Here is a list of adjectives used to comment on facts:

apparent

appropriate

awful

bad

clear

essential

evident

extraordinary

fair

funny

good

important

inevitable

interesting

likely

lucky

natural

obvious

plain

possible

probable

sad

true

unlikely

After a few adjectives, a clause beginning with a wh-word can be used.

It’s funny how they don’t get on.
It was never clear why she took a different route that night.

For more information, see paragraph 9.43.

commenting on a fact or idea

8.123 That-clauses can be used after be to refer to a fact or idea. The subject is usually one of the nouns listed in paragraph 7.86.

The fact is that a happy person makes a better worker.
The answer is simply that they are interested in doing it.
The most favoured explanation was that he was finally getting tired.
Our hope is that this time all parties will cooperate.

8.124 In formal English, that-clauses are sometimes used as the subject of a verb, when people want to comment on a fact.

That she is not stupid is self-evident.
That he is a troubled man is obvious.

In less formal English, the fact plus a that-clause is often used as a subject instead of a simple that-clause.

The fact that what they are doing is dangerous is not important here.
The fact that your boss is offering to do your job for you worries me.

The normal way of commenting on a fact is to use an impersonal it structure. See paragraph 8.122.

8.125 People also use the fact plus a that-clause as the object of prepositions and of verbs that cannot be followed by a simple that-clause.

He is proud of the fact that all his children went to university.
We missed the fact that the children were struggling to understand the exercise.

nominal use of wh-clauses

8.126 When you want to talk about something that is not certain or definite, or about which a choice has to be made, you can use clauses beginning with a wh-word or whether, like the clauses used for reported questions. They can be used after prepositions, and as the subject of verbs such as be, depend, and matter.

…the question of who should be President.
The teacher is uncertain about what she wants students to do.
What you get depends on how badly you were injured.
Whether I went twice or not doesn’t matter.
Whether you think they are good or not is not important.

8.127 Structures consisting of a wh-word plus a to-infinitive, which refer to a possible course of action, are used after prepositions but not usually as subjects.

…the problem of what to tell the adopted child.
…a book on how to avoid having a heart attack.
People are worried about how to fill their increased leisure time.

BE CAREFUL

8.128 Note that if-clauses, which are used for reported questions, cannot be used after prepositions or as the subject of a verb.

Non-finite clauses

8.129 A non-finite clause is a subordinate clause that contains a participle or an infinitive, and that does not contain a stated subject.

There are two types of non-finite clause. One type begins with a subordinating conjunction.

She fainted while giving evidence in court.
You’ve got to do something in depth in order to understand it.

This type of clause is dealt with in the sections on adverbial clauses (paragraphs 8.6 to 8.82).

The other type of non-finite clause does not begin with a subordinating conjunction.

He pranced about, feeling very important indeed.
I wanted to talk to her.

This type of clause sometimes consists of a participle and nothing else.

Ellen shook her head, smiling.
Rosie, grumbling, had gone to her piano lesson.

Clauses that contain a participle and do not begin with a subordinating conjunction are explained in the following paragraphs.

types of non-finite clause

8.130 The non-finite clauses discussed in this section work in a similar way to relative clauses, and, like relative clauses, they may be used for distinguishing a noun from others or they may simply add extra information.

Some clauses simply add extra information. These are called non-defining clauses. They are dealt with in paragraphs 8.132 to 8.143. These clauses are often used in writing, but are not usually used in spoken English.

Others are used to distinguish a noun from all other possibilities. These are called defining clauses. They are dealt with in paragraphs 8.144 and 8.145. These clauses are occasionally used in both written and spoken English.

position of non-defining clauses

8.131 Non-defining clauses can go in front of a main clause, after a main clause, or in the middle of one. A non-defining clause is usually separated by a comma from the words in front of it and after it.

Using non-defining clauses

8.132 Non-defining clauses give further information that is not needed to identify the person, thing, or group you are talking about.

The following paragraphs 8.133 to 8.138 explain how these clauses are used when they relate to the subject of the verb in a main clause. The subject is not mentioned in the non-defining clause.

-ing participle: events happening at the same time

8.133 If you want to say that someone is doing or experiencing two things at the same time, you mention one of them in the main clause and the other in a clause containing an -ing participle.

Laughing and shrieking, the crowd rushed under the nearest trees.
Jane watched, weeping, from the doorway.
Feeling a little foolish, Pluskat hung up.
Walking about, you notice something is different.
People stared at her. Seeing herself in a shop window, she could understand why.

BE CAREFUL

Note that the -ing participle should always describe an action performed by the subject of the main part of the sentence. So, for example, you should not say Going to school, it started to rain. Instead, you should say Going to school, I noticed that it had started to rain.

-ing participle: one action after another

8.134 If you want to say that someone did one thing immediately after another, you mention the first action in a clause containing an -ing participle and the second one in the main clause.

Leaping out of bed, he dressed so quickly that he put his boots on the wrong feet.

-ing participle: reasons

8.135 If you want to explain why someone does something or why something happens, you say what happens in the main clause and give the reason in a clause containing an -ing participle.

At one point I decided to go and talk to Uncle Sam. Then I changed my mind, realising that he could do nothing to help.
The puppy would probably not live to grow up, being a tiny, weak little thing.

8.136 You can also use an -ing participle directly after a verb in a sentence such as I stood shivering at the roadside. This use is explained in paragraphs 3.189 to 3.201.

having and -ed participle: results

8.137 If you want to say that someone did or experienced one thing before another, you mention the first thing in a clause containing having and an -ed participle. Often this kind of construction shows that the second event was a result of the first one.

I did not feel terribly shocked, having expected him to take the easiest way out.
Having admitted he was wrong, my husband suddenly fell silent.

-ed participle: earlier events

8.138 If you want to say what happened to someone or something before a situation or event described in the main clause, you say what happened in a clause containing an -ed participle on its own.

Angered by the policies of the union, she wrote a letter to the General Secretary.

mentioning the subject

8.139 Sometimes you want to use a non-defining clause that has a different subject from the subject of the main clause. These clauses are explained in the following paragraphs 8.140 to 8.143.

8.140 In this kind of non-defining clause, you usually have to mention the subject.

Jack being gone, Stephen opened his second letter.

However, if the non-defining clause comes after the main clause, and it is clear from the context that it relates to the object of the main clause, you do not need to mention the object again.

They picked me up, kicking and screaming, and carried me up to the road.

-ing participle

8.141 You use a non-defining clause containing a subject and an -ing participle:

when you want to mention something that is happening at the same time as the event or situation described in the main clause

The embarrassed young man stared at me, his face reddening.

when you want to mention a fact that is relevant to the fact stated in the main clause.

Bats are surprisingly long-lived creatures, some having a life-expectancy of around twenty years.

With is sometimes added at the beginning of the non-finite clause.

The old man stood up with tears running down his face.

-ed participle

8.142 You use having and an -ed participle to mention something that happened before the thing described in the main clause.

The argument having finished, Mr Lucas was ready to leave.
George having gone to bed, Mick had started watching a movie.
The question having been asked, he had to deal with it.

You use an -ed participle on its own to say that something was done or completed before the event or situation described in the main clause.

He proceeded to light his pipe. That done, he put on his woollen scarf and went out.

USAGE NOTE

8.143 In a negative non-defining clause, you put not in front of the participle, or in front of having.

He paused, not wishing to boast.
He didn’t recognize her at first, not having seen her for fifteen years or so.
He began to shout, their reply not having come as quickly as he wanted.

Using defining clauses

8.144 Defining non-finite clauses explain which person or thing you are talking about. They are always placed after the noun in a noun phrase.

The old lady driving the horse was dressed in black.
The bus carrying the musicians arrived just before noon.

use after pronouns

8.145 Defining clauses can be used after indefinite pronouns such as anyone.

Anyone following this advice could get in trouble.
Ask anybody nearing the age of retirement what they think.

Other structures used like non-finite clauses

8.146 Phrases that do not contain a verb are sometimes used in writing in a similar way to non-finite clauses.

8.147 In writing, you can add a phrase containing one or more adjectives to a sentence. This is another way of making two statements in one sentence.

For example, instead of writing We were tired and hungry. We reached the farm, you could write Tired and hungry, we reached the farm.

Surprised at my reaction, she tried to console me.
Much discouraged, I moved on to Philadelphia.
The boy nodded, pale and scared.
He knocked at the door, sick with fear.
Of course, said Alison, astonished.

8.148 In a similar way, you can use a phrase to describe something that is connected with the subject of a sentence. The phrase consists of a noun, followed by an adjective, an adverbial, or another noun.

For example, instead of writing He came into the room. His hat was in his hand, you could write He came into the room, his hat in his hand.

What do you mean by that? said Hugh, his face pale.
She stood very straight, her body absolutely stiff with fury.
He was waiting, drumming with his fingers, his eyes on his napkin.

With is sometimes added at the beginning of a phrase.

She walked on, with her eyes straight ahead.
It was a hot, calm day, with every object visible for miles.

Linking words, phrases, and clauses together

8.149 When you say or write something, you often want to put together two or more clauses of equal importance. You do this by using a coordinating conjunction.

Anna had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bride Street.
I asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused.
He was a great player, yet he never played for Ireland.

Here is a list of the most common coordinating conjunctions:

and

but

nor

or

then

yet

Coordinating conjunctions are also used to link words and phrases.

The boys shouted and rushed forward.
…domestic animals such as dogs and cats.
Her manner was hurried yet polite.
She spoke slowly but firmly.

Sometimes coordinating conjunctions are used together.

The software is quite sophisticated and yet easy to use.
Eric moaned something and then lay still.

The linking of clauses, words, or phrases using coordinating conjunctions is called coordination. Coordinating conjunctions are sometimes called coordinators.

8.150 The different uses of coordinating conjunctions are explained in the following paragraphs:

clauses

paragraphs 8.151 to 8.163

verbs

paragraphs 8.164 to 8.170

noun phrases

paragraphs 8.171 to 8.179

adjectives and adverbs

paragraphs 8.180 to 8.189

other words and phrases

paragraphs 8.190 to 8.193

Ways of emphasizing coordinating conjunctions are described in paragraphs 8.194 to 8.199.

The linking of more than two clauses, words, or phrases is explained in paragraphs 8.200 and 8.201.

Linking clauses

8.151 You can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses that have the same subject, or clauses that have different subjects.

omitting words in the second clause

8.152 When you link clauses that have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.

If the conjunction is and, or, or then, you do not usually repeat the subject.

I picked up the glass and raised it to my lips.
It’s a long time since you’ve bought them a drink or talked to them.
When she recognized Morris she went pale, then blushed.

If the conjunction is but, so, or yet, it is usual to repeat the subject.

I try and see it their way, but I can’t.
I had no car, so I hired one for the journey.
He lost the fight, yet somehow he emerged with his dignity.

When you link clauses that have different subjects but that have some common elements, you do not need to repeat all the elements in the second clause.

For example, instead of saying Some of them went to one restaurant and some of them went to the other restaurant, you can say Some of them went to one restaurant and some to the other.

One soldier was killed and another wounded.
One side was painted black and the other white.

functions of coordinating conjunctions

8.153 A coordinating conjunction can be used simply to link clauses, or it can be used in addition to indicate a relationship between them. These uses are explained in the following paragraphs.

related facts

8.154 If you simply want to mention two related facts, you use and.

He has been successful in Hollywood and has worked with such directors as Mike Leigh and Richard Attenborough.
The company will not close and will continue to operate from Belfast.
He gained a B in English and now plans to study languages.

You also use and to show that two things happened or are happening at the same time.

I sat and watched him.

Other uses of and are explained in the following paragraphs.

sequence

8.155 If you use and between two clauses that describe events, you are saying that the event described in the first clause happens or happened before the event described in the second one.

She was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan.
He opened the car door and got out.

Then can be used in the same way, but it is less common.

We finished our drinks then left.

two negative facts

8.156 When you want to link two negative clauses, you usually use and.

When his contract ended he did not return home and he has not been there since 1979.

However, you can use or when the clauses have the same subject and the same auxiliaries. In the second clause, you omit the subject, the auxiliaries, and not.

For example, instead of saying She doesn’t eat meat and she doesn’t eat fish, you can say She doesn’t eat meat or fish.

We will not damage or destroy the samples.
He didn’t yell or scream.

You can also link negative clauses by using and neither, and nor, or nor. You put be or the auxiliary at the beginning of the second clause, in front of the subject.

For example, instead of saying My sister doesn’t like him, and I don’t like him, you can say My sister doesn’t like him, and neither do I.

I was not happy and neither were they.
I could not afford to eat in restaurants and nor could anyone else I knew.
These people are not crazy, nor are they fools.

But neither and but nor can also be used.

This isn’t a great movie, but neither is it rubbish.
I don’t want to marry him but nor do I want anyone else to.

When you use and to link two negative statements, you can put either after the second statement.

I hadn’t been to a rock festival before and Mike hadn’t either.
Electricity didn’t come into Blackball Farm until recently and they hadn’t any hot water either.

For emphasis, you can join two negative clauses by using neither and nor. This use is explained in paragraph 8.198.

contrast

8.157 When you are adding a contrasting fact, you usually use but.

I’m only 63, but I feel a hundred.
It costs quite a lot but it’s worth it.
I’ve had a very pleasant two years, but I can’t wait to get back to the city.

If you want to add a fact that contrasts strongly with what you have just said, you use yet or and yet.

Everything around him was destroyed, yet the minister escaped without a scratch.
I want to leave, and yet I feel I should to stay.

You usually put a comma in front of but, yet, or and yet.

alternatives

8.158 When you want to mention two alternatives, you use or.

We could take a picnic or we could find a restaurant when we’re out.
Did he jump, or was he pushed?

USAGE NOTE

8.159 When you are giving advice, you sometimes want to tell someone what will happen if they do a particular thing. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by and and a clause containing a verb in a form that expresses future time.

For example, instead of saying If you go by train, you’ll get there quicker, you can say Go by train and you’ll get there quicker.

Do as you are told and you’ll be alright.
You speak to me again like that and you’re going to be in serious trouble.

When you are giving advice, a warning, or an order, you sometimes want to tell someone what will happen if they do not do what you say. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by or and a clause containing a verb in a form that expresses future time.

For example, instead of saying Go away! If you don’t go away, I’ll scream, you can say Go away, or I’ll scream.

Hurry up, or you’re going to be late for school.
Don’t fight or you’ll get hurt.

USAGE NOTE

8.160 In writing, you can sometimes begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. You do this to make the sentence seem more dramatic or forceful. Some people think this use is incorrect.

The villagers had become accustomed to minor earth tremors. But everyone knew that something unusual had woken them on Monday.
Do you think there is something wrong with her? Or do you just not like her?
Go now. And close that door.

USAGE NOTE

8.161 Sometimes, in writing, two clauses can be made into one sentence without a coordinating conjunction being used. Instead, a semicolon or a dash is put between the clauses. This is a way of expressing two statements in one sentence when no particular coordinating conjunction seems appropriate.

The neighbours drove by; they couldn’t bear to look.
I couldn’t say thank you–those words were far too small for someone who had risked her life to save mine.

non-finite clauses

8.162 Coordinating conjunctions can be used to link non-finite clauses.

To-infinitive clauses can be linked by and or or.

We need to persuade drivers to leave their cars at home and to use the train instead.
She may decide to remarry or to live with one of her sisters.

Sometimes the second to is omitted.

They tried to clear the road and remove discarded objects.

When the second clause is negative, you can use not instead of and not.

I am paid to treat people, not to interrogate them.

Clauses beginning with a participle can be linked by and or or.

She lay on the bed gazing at the child and smiling at him.
You may be more comfortable wearing a cotton dress or shirt or sleeping under a cotton blanket.

However, if the first clause begins with standing, sitting, or lying, you do not usually put and between the clauses.

Inside were two lines of old people sitting facing each other.

8.163 For information on how to coordinate more than two clauses, see paragraph 8.200.

Linking verbs together

8.164 When you are talking about two actions performed by the same person, thing, or group, you can use a coordinating conjunction to link two verbs.

intransitive verbs

8.165 Coordinating conjunctions can be used to link intransitive verbs.

Mostly, they just sat and chatted.
We both shrugged and laughed.

transitive verbs

8.166 When you are describing actions involving the same subject and object, you can link two transitive verbs. You put the object after the second verb only.

For example, instead of saying He swept the floor and polished the floor, you say He swept and polished the floor.

Wash and trim the leeks.

Similarly, instead of saying They walk to work or cycle to work, you can say They walk or cycle to work.

I shouted and waved at them.

leaving out the auxiliary

8.167 When you are linking verb phrases that contain the same auxiliary, you do not need to repeat the auxiliary in the second clause.

Someone may be killed or seriously injured.
Now he is praised rather than criticized.
He knew a lot about horses, having lived and worked with them all his life.

emphasizing repetition or duration

8.168 If you want to say that someone does something repeatedly or for a long time, you can use and to link two identical verbs.

They laughed and laughed.
He tried and tried, but in the end he had to give up.

USAGE NOTE

8.169  In informal speech, and is often used between try and another verb. For example, someone might say I’ll try and get a newspaper. However, this means the same as I’ll try to get a newspaper.

For more information about this use see paragraph 3.200.

8.170 For information on how to coordinate more than two verbs, see paragraph 8.200.

Linking noun phrases

8.171 When you are talking about two people or things, you can use a coordinating conjunction to link two noun phrases.

8.172 In simple statements about two people or things, you use and.

There were men and women working in the fields.
I’ll give you a nice cup of tea and a biscuit.
…a friendship between a boy and a girl.

Instead of and not, you use not with a comma in front of it.

I prefer romantic comedies, not action movies.

If both people or things are the object of the verb in a negative sentence, you use or.

We didn’t play cricket or football.

alternatives

8.173 When you are giving alternatives, you use or.

Serve fruit or cheese afterwards.
Do you have any brothers or sisters?

omitting determiners

8.174 When you refer to two people or things using and or or, you usually repeat the determiner.

He was holding a suitcase and a birdcage.

However, if the people or things are closely associated in some way, you do not need to repeat the determiner.

My mother and father worked hard.
The jacket and skirt were skilfully designed.
…a man in a suit and tie.

Sometimes both determiners are omitted.

Mother and baby are doing well.
All this had of course been discussed between husband and wife.

referring to one person or thing

8.175 You can sometimes use noun phrases linked by and to refer to just one person or thing.

He’s a racist and a sexist.
…the novelist and playwright, Somerset Maugham.

omitting adjectives

8.176 When you are linking two nouns, an adjective in front of the first noun usually applies to both nouns.

…the young men and women of America.
…a house crammed with beautiful furniture and china.

verb agreement

8.177 When the subject of a clause consists of two or more nouns linked by and, you use a plural verb.

My mother and father are ill.
Time, money and effort were needed.

However, you do not use a plural verb if the nouns refer to the same person or thing.

The writer and filmmaker Michael Hey disagrees.

You also do not use a plural verb with uncountable nouns preceded by all, or with singular countable nouns preceded by each or every.

All this effort and sacrifice has not helped to alleviate poverty.
It became necessary to involve every man, woman and child who was willing to help.

When you link two or more nouns with or, you use a plural verb after plural nouns, and a singular verb after singular nouns or uncountable nouns.

One generation’s problems or successes are passed to the next.
Can you say No to a friend or relative who wants to insist?

When you link two or more nouns with or, and the nouns would take different verb forms if they were used alone, a plural verb is generally used.

It’s fine if your parents or brother want to come.

linking pronouns together

8.178 You can put and, or, or not between a pronoun and a noun, or between two pronouns.

Howard and I are planning a party.
She and I have a very good relationship.
Do you or your partner speak German?
I’m talking to you, not her.

When you say something about yourself and someone else, you usually put the pronoun or noun referring to the other person first, and the pronoun referring to yourself second.

My sister and I lived totally different kinds of lives.
You and I must have a talk together.
…a difference of opinion between John and me.
The first people to hear were the Foreign Secretary and myself.

8.179 For information on how to coordinate more than two noun phrases, see paragraph 8.200.

Linking adjectives and adverbs

8.180 When you use two adjectives to describe someone or something, you sometimes put a conjunction between them. This is explained in the following paragraphs 8.181 to 8.187. Conjunctions are also sometimes placed between adverbs. This is explained in paragraph 8.188.

qualitative adjectives

8.181 When you put two qualitative adjectives in front of a noun, you put and or a comma between the adjectives.

…an intelligent and ambitious woman.
…an intelligent, generous man.

colour adjectives

8.182 When you put two colour adjectives in front of a noun, you put and between them.

…a black and white swimming suit.

classifying adjectives

8.183 When you put two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, you have to decide whether the adjectives relate to the same system of classification or to different systems.

For example, geographical and geological relate to the same system; British and industrial relate to different systems.

When you put two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, and the adjectives relate to the same classifying system, you put and between them.

…a social and educational dilemma.

When the adjectives relate to different classifying systems, you do not put and between them, or use a comma.

…the French classical pianists Katia and Marielle Labeque.
medieval Muslim philosophers.
…a square wooden table.
American agricultural exports.

different types of adjective

8.184 When you put two adjectives of different types in front of a noun, for example a qualitative adjective and a classifying adjective, you do not put and between them or use a comma.

…a large circular pool of water.
…a beautiful pink suit.
rapid technological advance.

adjectives with plural nouns

8.185 When you put two adjectives in front of a plural noun in order to talk about two groups of things that have different or opposite qualities, you put and between the adjectives.

…business people from large and small companies.
European and American traditions.

adjectives after verbs

8.186 When you use two adjectives after a linking verb, you put and between them.

Mrs Scott’s house was large and imposing.
The room was large and square.
On this point we can be clear and precise.

using other conjunctions

8.187 You can also put but, yet, or or between adjectives.

When you link contrasting adjectives, you put but or yet between them.

…a small but comfortable hotel.
We are poor but happy. …a firm yet gentle hand.

When you want to say that either of two adjectives could apply, or to ask which adjective applies, you use or.

You can use red or black paint.
Call me if you feel lonely or bored.
Is this good or bad?

If you want to say that neither of two adjectives applies, you use or in a negative sentence.

He was not exciting or good-looking.

Another way of saying that neither of two adjectives applies is to put neither in front of the first one and nor in front of the second one.

He is neither young nor handsome.
Their diet is neither healthy nor varied.

linking adverbs together

8.188 You can put and between adverbs.

Mary was breathing quietly and evenly.
We have to keep airports running smoothly and efficiently.
They walk up and down, smiling.

When you link contrasting adverbs, you put but or yet between them.

Quickly but silently she darted out of the cell.

If you want to say that neither of two adverbs applies, you use a negative sentence with or between the adverbs, or you put neither in front of the first adverb and nor in front of the second one.

Giving birth does not happen easily or painlessly.
The story ends neither happily nor unhappily.

8.189 For information on how to coordinate more than two adjectives, see paragraph 8.201.

Linking other words and phrases

8.190 Coordinating conjunctions can also be used to link prepositions, prepositional phrases, modifiers, and determiners.

linking prepositions together

8.191 You can use and to link prepositions that apply to the same noun.

We see them on their way to and from school.
You should take the tablets during and after your visit.

linking prepositional phrases together

8.192 You can use and to link prepositional phrases when you are describing similar actions, situations, or things.

They walked across the lawn and down the garden path.
They had crumbs around their mouths and under their chins.

However, if the phrases describe the same action, situation, or thing, you do not put and between them.

Her husband was hit over the head with a mallet.
They walked down the drive between the chestnut trees.
…a man of about forty with wide staring eyes.

linking modifiers and determiners together

8.193 You can use and or or to link modifiers.

…the largest fridge and freezer manufacturer in Germany.
This would not apply to a coal or oil supplier.

You can use or to link the determiners his and her.

Your child’s school will play an important part in shaping the rest of his or her life.

Emphasizing coordinating conjunctions

8.194 When you are using coordinating conjunctions, you sometimes want to emphasize that what you are saying applies to both the words or phrases linked by the conjunction. You usually do this by putting a word such as bothor neither in front of the first word or phrase.

8.195 When you are using and, the most common way of emphasizing that what you are saying applies to two phrases is to put both in front of the first phrase.

By that time both Robin and Drew were overseas.
They feel both anxiety and joy.
These headlines both mystified and infuriated him.
Investment continues both at home and abroad.
The medicine is both expensive and in great demand.

Another way is to use and also instead of and.

Wilkins drove racing cars himself and also raced powerboats.
The job of the library is to get books to people and also to get information to them.

8.196 For stronger emphasis, you can put not only or not just in front of the first word or phrase, and but or but also between the two words or phrases.

The team is playing really well, not only in England but now in Europe.
Employers need to think more seriously not only of attracting staff but of keeping them.

8.197 When you are using or, the most common way of emphasizing that what you are saying applies to two words or phrases is to put either in front of the first word or phrase.

Sentences can be either true or false.
You can either buy a special insecticide or get help from an expert.
Either Margaret or John should certainly have come to see me by now.
Either we raise money from outside or we close part of the museum.

When you are linking clauses in this way, you can use or else, instead of or.

They should either formally charge the men or else let them go.

8.198 If you want to emphasize that a negative statement applies to two words or phrases, you put neither in front of the first word or phrase and nor in front of the second word or phrase.

For example, instead of saying The girl did not speak or look up, you say The girl neither spoke nor looked up.

The thought neither upset nor delighted her.
She had neither received nor read the letter.
Neither Margaret nor John was there.

Note that you use a singular verb after singular noun phrases and a plural verb after plural noun phrases.

Neither Belinda nor anyone else was going to speak.
Neither city councils nor wealthy manufacturers have much need of painters or sculptors.

8.199 Sometimes you want to draw attention to an element of a sentence by contrasting it with something different. One way to do this is to link the two elements by putting but between them. You put not in front of the first element.

I wasn’t smiling, not because I was angry but because it was painful to move my face.
I felt not joy but sadness.
The upright chairs were not polished but painted.

Linking more than two clauses, phrases, or words

8.200 You can link more than two clauses, words, or phrases using and or or. Usually you use the conjunction only once, putting it between the last two clauses, words, or phrases. After each of the others you put a comma.

Harrison marched him to the door, threw him out and returned.
…courses in accountancy, science, maths or engineering.

You can also put a comma in front of the conjunction; this usually makes the sentence easier to read, especially if the separated elements contain more than one word or are not completely similar.

Mrs Roberts cooked meals, cleaned, mended clothes, and went to meetings of the sewing club.

 In informal speech, people sometimes put and or or between each pair of clauses, words, or phrases. Occasionally, you do this in writing when you want to emphasize that all the statements you are making are true.

Mrs Barnett has a gate and it’s not locked and that’s how they get out.

linking adjectives together

8.201 There are special rules for linking more than two adjectives.

When you put more than two qualitative adjectives in front of a noun, you put commas between the adjectives and do not use a conjunction.

…a large, airy, comfortable room.

When you put more than two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, you have to decide whether the adjectives relate to the same system of classification or to different systems. (This is explained in paragraph 8.183.)

If the classifying adjectives relate to the same system, you put and between the last two adjectives and a comma after each of the others.

…the country’s social, economic and political crisis.

If the classifying adjectives relate to different systems of classification, you do not put anything between any of the adjectives.

…an unknown medieval French poet.

When you put both qualitative and classifying adjectives in front of a noun, you do not put anything between them.

…a little white wooden house.

When you put more than two adjectives after a linking verb, you put and between the last two adjectives and a comma after each of the others.

He was big, dark and mysterious.
We felt hot, tired and thirsty.