English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

9. Changing the focus in a sentence

Introduction

9.1 The structure of a statement usually follows the sequence subject, verb, object, complement, adverbial. The subject, which is what you are going to talk about, comes first. If you do not want to draw special attention to any part of the clause, then you follow this sequence.

The examples above are in the declarative form. Chapter 5 explains how meanings can be expressed using the declarative, the interrogative and the imperative forms. These other forms involve regular changes in the sequence of elements in the clause.

Is he ill?
Put it on the table.

9.2 However, there are other ways of putting the parts of a clause in a different sequence, in order to give special emphasis or meaning.

This applies mainly to main clauses. This chapter shows how you can change the word order in a main clause when you want to give special force to the whole clause or to one of its elements.

In most subordinate clauses, you have no choice about the order of the clause elements (see Chapter 8).

the passive

9.3 One way of changing word order in order to change the focus in a clause is to use the passive form. The passive allows you to talk about an event from the point of view of the thing or person affected, and even to avoid mentioning who or what was responsible for the action.

A girl from my class was chosen to do the reading.

The passive is explained in paragraphs 9.8 to 9.24.

split sentences

9.4 Another way of varying the sequence of elements in the clause is to use a split sentence. There are three different types.

One type allows you to focus on the person or thing you are talking about, as in It was Jason who told them.

The second type allows you to focus on an action, as in What they did was break a window and get in that way or All I could do was cry.

The third type allows you to focus on the circumstances of an action, for example the time or the place, as in It was one o’clock when they left, or It was in Paris that they met for the first time.

Split sentences are dealt with in the section beginning at paragraph 9.25.

impersonal it

9.5 When you want to say something about a fact, an action, or a particular state, you can use a structure beginning with it, for example It’s strange that he didn’t call, It’s easy to laugh, and It’s no fun being stupid.

You also use an it structure to talk about the weather or the time, for example It’s raining, It’s a nice day, and It’s two o’clock.

It structures are dealt with in the section beginning at paragraph 9.31.

there with be

9.6 There is used followed by be and a noun phrase to introduce the idea of the existence or presence of something. This makes the noun phrase, which is new information, the focus of the clause. For more information, see paragraphs 9.46 to 9.55.

There is someone in the bushes.

adverbials

9.7 There are also two types of adverbial that you can use to focus on a clause as a whole, or on different elements of the clause. These include sentence adverbials (see the section beginning at paragraph 9.56) and focusing adverbials (see paragraphs 9.79 to 9.90).

He never writes, of course.
Frankly, I don’t really care what they think.
As a child she was particularly close to her elder sister.

Focusing on the thing affected: the passive

9.8 Many actions involve two people or things – one that performs the action and one that is affected by the action. These actions are typically referred to using transitive verbs, that is, verbs that have an object. Transitive verbsare explained fully in Chapter 3.

In English the person or thing you want to talk about is usually put first as the subject of the clause. So, when you want to talk about someone or something that is the performer of an action, you make them the subject of the verb and you use an active form of the verb. The other person or thing is made the object of the verb.

However, you may want to focus on the person or thing affected by an action, which would be the object of an active form of the verb. In that case, you make that person or thing the subject of a passive form of the verb.

For example, you could report the same event by using an active form of a verb, as in The dog has eaten our dinner or by using a passive form of a verb, as in Our dinner has been eaten by the dog, depending on whether you wanted to focus on the dog or your dinner.

formation of the passive

9.9 Passive forms consist of an appropriate form of be followed by the -ed participle of the verb. For example, the passive form of the present simple of eat is the present simple of be followed by eaten: It is eaten.

She escaped uninjured but her boyfriend was shot in the chest.
He was being treated for a stomach ulcer.
He thinks such events could have been avoided.

For details of passive forms of verbs, see the Reference Section.

not mentioning the person or thing that performed the action

9.10 When you use the passive form of a verb, you do not have to mention the person or thing responsible for the action (the performer).

You may want to do this for one of these reasons:

because you do not know who or what the performer is

He’s almost certainly been delayed.
The fence between the two properties had been removed.

because it is not important who or what the performer is

I was told that it would be perfectly quiet.
Such items should be carefully packed in boxes.

because it is obvious who or what the performer is

She found that she wasn’t being paid the same salary as him.
…the number of children who have been vaccinated against measles.

because the performer has already been mentioned

His pictures of dogs were drawn with great humour.
The government responded quickly, and new measures were passed which strengthened their powers.

because people in general are the performers

Both of these books can be obtained from the public library.
It is very strange and has never been clearly explained.

because you do not want to say who performed an action, or you want to distance yourself from your own action.

The original has been destroyed.
I’ve been told you wished to see me.

9.11 In accounts of processes and scientific experiments, the passive is used without the performer being mentioned because the focus is on what happens and not on who or what makes it happen.

The principle of bottling is very simple. Food is put in jars, the jars and their contents are heated to a temperature which is maintained long enough to ensure that all bacteria, moulds and viruses are destroyed.

9.12 The passive form of reporting verbs is often used in an impersonal it structure, when it is clear whose words or thoughts you are giving or when you are giving the words or thoughts of people in general. See 9.45 in the section on impersonal it structures.

It was agreed that he would come and see us again the next day.
It was rumoured that he had been sentenced to life imprisonment, but had escaped.

USAGE NOTE

9.13 When people in general are the performers of the action, an active form of the verb is sometimes used instead, with the generic pronouns you or they as the subject. One is used as the subject in this kind of clause in formal speech and writing.

You can’t buy iron now, only steel.
They say she’s very bright.
If one decides to live in the country then one should be prepared for the unexpected.

For more information about generic pronouns, see paragraphs 1.119 to 1.123.

You can also use the indefinite pronouns someone or something. This allows you to mention a performer, without specifying who or what they are. For more information about indefinite pronouns, see paragraphs 1.128 to 1.141.

I think someone’s calling you.
Something has upset him.

Ergative verbs can also enable you to avoid mentioning the performer of an action. For example, instead of saying She opened the door, you can say The door opened. See the section on ergative verbs in paragraphs 3.59 to 3.67.

mentioning the performer with by

9.14 When you use the passive, you can mention the person or thing that performed the action at the end of the clause by using by. This puts emphasis on the performer because the end of the clause is an important position.

His best friend was killed by a grenade, which exploded under his car.
Some of the children were adopted by local couples.
This view has been challenged by a number of workers.

mentioning things or methods used

9.15 As with active forms of verbs, you can mention something that the performer used to perform the action after the preposition with.

A circle was drawn in the dirt with a stick.
Moisture must be drawn out first with salt.

You can mention the method using an -ing form after by.

The strong taste can be removed by changing the cooking water.

passive of verbs referring to states

9.16 A few transitive verbs refer to states rather than actions. When some of these verbs are used in the passive, the person or thing that creates that state is put after the preposition with.

The room was filled with people.
The railings were decorated with thousands of bouquets.

Here is a list of transitive verbs referring to states that are used with with in the passive:

cover

cram

crowd

decorate

fill

litter

ornament

pack

stuff

teem

throng

However, by is used with some verbs that describe a state.

The building was illuminated by thousands of lights.

Here is a list of transitive verbs referring to states that are used with by in the passive:

conceal

exceed

illuminate

inhabit

occupy

overshadow

Some verbs, such as adorn and surround can be used with with or by after them.

Her right hand was covered with blood.
One entire wall was covered by a gigantic chart of the English Channel.
The house was surrounded with policemen.
The building was surrounded by a deep green lawn.

Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with either with or by in the passive:

adorn

besiege

cover

encircle

overrun

surround

There are also several verbs that are used with in.

She claimed that the drug was contained in a cold cure given to her by the team doctor.
Free transport was not included in the contract.
The walls of her flat are covered in dirt.

Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with in in the passive:

contain

cover

embody

include

involve

subsume

Note that cover can be used with in, by, or with.

phrasal verbs

9.17 Phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb followed by an adverb or preposition, or by an adverb and a preposition, can be used in the passive. Lists of phrasal verbs are given in paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116.

Two totally opposing views have been put forward to explain this phenomenon.
Millions of tons of good earth are being washed away each year.
I was talked into meeting Norman Granz at a posh London restaurant.
Such expectations are drummed into every growing child.

verbs usually used in the passive

9.18 Because of their meaning, some transitive verbs are usually used in the passive. The performer of the action is usually thought to be not worth mentioning or is not known.

He was deemed to be the guardian of the child.
The meeting is scheduled for February 14.
The young men were alleged to have rampaged through the hotel.

The following transitive verbs are usually used in the passive:

be acclaimed

be alleged

be annihilated

be baffled

be born

be compressed

be conditioned

be construed

be couched

be cremated

be dazed

be deafened

be debased

be deemed

be disconcerted

be dubbed

be dwarfed

be earmarked

be empowered

be fined

be gutted

be headed

be horrified

be hospitalized

be indicted

be inundated

be jailed

be mesmerized

be misdirected

be overcome

be paralysed

be penalized

be perpetrated

be pilloried

be populated

be prized

be punctuated

be rationed

be reconciled

be reprieved

be reunited

be rumoured

be scheduled

be shipped

be shipwrecked

be short-listed

be shrouded

be staffed

be stranded

be strewn

be subsumed

be suspended

be swamped

be wounded

The following phrasal verbs are usually used in the passive:

be bowled over

be caught up

be handed down

be pensioned off

be ploughed up

be rained off

be scaled down

be struck off

be sworn in

be taken aback

be written into

They were bowled over by the number of visitors who came to the show.
The journalists were taken aback by the ferocity of the language.

verbs that are rarely used in the passive

9.19 A few transitive verbs are rarely used in the passive because the thing affected by the action they describe is rarely the thing you are interested in.

The following transitive verbs are rarely used in the passive:

elude

escape

flee

get

have

let

like

race

resemble

suit

survive

The following phrasal verbs containing a transitive verb are rarely used in the passive:

band together

bite back

boom out

brush up

call down on

cast back

chuck in

cry out

ease off

eke out

flick over

get back

get down

give over

have on

have out

heave up

hunt up

jab at

jack in

jerk out

let through

pace out

phone back

ring back

ring out

sit out

sob out

stand off

tide over

wait out

walk off

while away

verbs with two objects

9.20 In the case of verbs that can have an indirect object as well as a direct object such as give, teach, and show, either object can be the subject of a passive clause.

For example, instead of He gave the receptionist the key, you can say The key was given to the receptionist, where the direct object of the active clause is the subject of the passive clause. The indirect object can be mentioned after to or for.

The building had been given to the town by an investment banker.
Shelter had been found for most people.

Sometimes it is unnecessary to mention the indirect object at all.

The vaccine can be given at the same time as other injections.
Interest is charged at 2% a month.

But you can also say The receptionist was given the key, where the indirect object of the active clause is the subject of the passive clause. Note that the direct object is still mentioned after the verb.

They were given a pint of water every day.
He had been offered drugs by an older student.

For lists of verbs that can have an indirect object as well as a direct object, see paragraphs 3.73 to 3.82.

transitive verbs with object complement: The wall was painted blue

9.21 There is a group of transitive verbs that can have a complement after their object. They are listed and described in paragraphs 3.161 to 3.171. When these verbs are used in the passive, the complement is put directly after the verb.

He was shot dead in San Francisco.
If a person today talks about ghosts, he is considered ignorant or crazy.

reflexive verbs

9.22 Reflexive verbs, whose object is a reflexive pronoun referring to the subject of the verb, are not used in the passive. For more information on reflexive verbs, see the section beginning at paragraph 3.26.

intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions

9.23 Many intransitive phrasal verbs can be used in the passive. The verbs are followed by a preposition and a noun phrase referring to the thing affected by the action the verb describes. The object of the preposition can be made the subject of the passive form of the verb. The preposition remains after the verb, with no object after it.

In some households, the man was referred to as the master.
Two people at the head of the line were being dealt with by a couple of clerks.
The performance had been paid for by a local cultural society.
The children were being looked after by family friends.

The following is a list of intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions that are often used in the passive:

accede to

account for

act on

adhere to

aim at

allow for

allude to

approve of

ask for

aspire to

attend to

bargain for

bite into

break into

budget for

build on

call for

call on

care for

cater for

count on

deal with

decide on

despair of

dictate to

dispense with

dispose of

enter into

frown upon

fuss over

get at

get round

gloss over

guess at

hear of

hint at

hope for

impose on

improve on

indulge in

inquire into

insist on

jump on

keep to

laugh at

lean on

leap on

light upon

listen to

long for

look after

look at

look into

look through

look to

meddle with

minister to

mourn for

object to

operate on

pander to

paper over

pay for

pick on

plan for

plan on

play with

plot against

point to

pore over

pounce on

preside over

prevail on

prey on

provide for

put upon

puzzle over

reason with

refer to

rely on

remark on

resort to

rush into

see through

see to

seize on

send for

set on

settle on

shoot at

skate over

stamp on

stare at

subscribe to

talk about

talk to

tamper with

tinker with

touch on

trample on

trifle with

wait on

watch over

wonder at

work on

A few three-word phrasal verbs are used in the passive.

He longs to be looked up to.
I was afraid of being done away with.

The following list contains three-word phrasal verbs used in the passive:

do away with

live up to

look down on

look forward to

look out for

look up to

play around with

talk down to

USAGE NOTE

9.24  Note that in informal spoken English, get is sometimes used instead of be to form the passive.

Our car gets cleaned about once every two months.
Before that, I’d got arrested by the police.

 In present perfect passive and past perfect passive sentences formed with get, American English uses gotten rather than got.

I had cheated and lied, and I’d gotten caught. (American)

Selecting focus: split sentences

9.25 One way of focusing on a particular part of a sentence is to use a split sentence. This involves using the verb be, either with it as an impersonal subject or with a clause such as a relative clause or a to-infinitive clause. Other grammars sometimes refer to split sentences as cleft sentences.

it as the subject: It was Fiona who told me

9.26 If you want to emphasize one noun phrase, you can use It is … or It was … and follow it with a relative clause.

For example, instead of saying George found the right answer, you may want to stress the fact that George did it by saying It was George who found the right answer.

It was Ted who broke the news to me.
It is usually the other vehicle that suffers most.

Similarly, instead of saying Henry makes clocks, you can say It’s clocks that Henry makes.

It’s money that they want.
It was me who David wanted.

other kinds of focus

9.27 In a split sentence, you usually focus on a noun phrase. However, you can focus on other clause elements or even on a whole clause. You then use a relative clause beginning with that.

You can make a prepositional phrase, a time adverbial or an adverb of place the focus of a split sentence in order to stress the circumstances of an event.

It was from Francis that she first heard the news.
It was then that I realized I’d forgotten my wallet.
It was in Paris that I first saw these films.

You can also focus on an -ing form if you are stressing an action.

It was meeting Peter that really started me off on this new line of work.

You can focus on a clause beginning with because to stress the reason for something.

Perhaps it’s because he’s different that I get along with him.

what or all to focus on an action

9.28 If you want to focus on an action performed by someone, you can use a split sentence consisting of what followed by the subject, the verb do, the verb be, and an infinitive with or without to.

For example, instead of saying I wrote to George immediately, you can say What I did was to write to George immediately.

What I did was to make a plan.
What you have to do is to choose five companies to invest in.
What it does is draw out all the vitamins from the body.

You can use all instead of what if you want to emphasize that just one thing is done and nothing else.

All he did was shake hands and wish me good luck.
All she ever does is make jam.

focusing on the topic

9.29 Clauses with what as their subject are sometimes used to focus on the thing you are talking about. They can be put after the verb be as well as in front of it. For example, you can say Its originality was what appealed to me, as well as What appealed to me was its originality.

What impressed me most was their sincerity.
These six factors are what constitutes intelligence.

focusing on what someone wants or needs: What I want is a holiday, All I need is to win this game

9.30 If you want to focus on the thing that someone wants, needs, or likes, you can use a split sentence beginning with a clause consisting of what followed by the subject and a verb such as want or need. After this clause, you use the verb be and a noun phrase referring to the thing wanted, needed, or liked.

For example, instead of saying We need a bigger garden, you can say What we need is a bigger garden.

What we as a nation want is not words but deeds.
What you need is a doctor.
What he needed was an excuse to talk.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with what in this structure:

adore

dislike

enjoy

hate

like

loathe

love

need

prefer

want

You can use all instead of what with the verbs want or need if you want to emphasize that someone wants or needs a particular thing and nothing else.

All they want is a holiday.
All a prisoner needed was a pass.

If you do not want to mention the performer in the above structures, you can use a passive form of the verb, after what or all that.

What was needed was a revolution.

Taking the focus off the subject: using impersonal it

9.31 You often want to mention only one thing or fact in a clause. For example, you often want to focus on the type of information that is normally expressed by an adjective. But an adjective cannot stand alone as the subject of a clause. A common way of presenting information of this type is to put the adjective after be, with it as the subject.

If you do not want to choose any of the clause elements as the thing you are going to talk about, you can use several structures with it as subject.

It can be used:

to describe a place or situation

It’s lovely here.

to talk about the weather or to say what the time is.

It had been raining all day.
It is seven o’clock.

These uses are often called the impersonal uses of it.

9.32 In these uses, it does not refer back to anything earlier in the speech or writing, and so it is different from the personal pronoun, which usually refers back to a particular noun phrase:

The ending, when it arrives, is completely unexpected.
Paris is special, isn’t it?

For more information about personal pronouns, see the section beginning at paragraph 1.95.

Note that the pronoun it is also used to refer to a whole situation or fact that has been described or implied.

He’s never come to see his son.
It’s most peculiar, isn’t it?
It doesn’t matter. It’s my fault.

9.33 It is also used to introduce a comment on an action, activity, or experience. The subject it refers forward.

It costs so much to get there.
It was amazing that audiences came to the theatre at all.

This structure with it allows you to avoid having a long subject, and to put what you are talking about in a more prominent position at the end of the sentence.

Describing a place or situation

9.34 If you want to describe the experience of being in a particular place, you can use it followed by a linking verb such as be, an adjective, and an adverbial of place.

It was very hard in Germany after the war.
It was terribly cold in the trucks.
It’s nice down there.

For more information about how to talk about place, see the section beginning at paragraph 6.53.

Similarly, you can indicate your opinion of a situation using it, be, an adjective, and a clause beginning with when or if.

It’s so nice when it’s hot, isn’t it?
Won’t it seem odd if I have no luggage?

using it as an object

9.35 You can also use it as the object of verbs such as like and hate to describe your feelings about a place or situation.

I like it here.
He knew that he would hate it if they said no.

Here is a list of common verbs that are used in this way:

adore

dislike

enjoy

hate

like

loathe

love

prefer

Talking about the weather and the time

describing the weather: It’s raining, It’s sunny

9.36 You can describe the weather by using it as the subject of a verb.

It’s still raining.
It was pouring with rain.
It snowed steadily throughout the night.

The following verbs are used after it to talk about the weather:

drizzle

hail

pour

rain

sleet

snow

thunder

You can also describe the weather by using it followed by be and an adjective by itself, or an adjective followed by a noun referring to a period of time.

‘Can I go swimming?’ – ‘No, it’s too cold.’
It was very windy.
It was a warm, sunny evening.
It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?

Here is a list of common adjectives that are used to describe the weather:

bitter

blowy

blustery

boiling

breezy

chilly

cloudy

cold

cool

damp

dark

dry

fine

foggy

freezing

frosty

hot

humid

icy

light

lovely

misty

muggy

nasty

rainy

showery

stormy

sunny

thundery

warm

wet

windy

Note that you can describe a change in the weather or light by using it followed by get and an adjective.

It’s getting cold. Shall we go inside?
It’s getting dark.

giving times and dates

9.37 You can say what the time, day, or date is by using it followed by be and an adjective or noun phrase referring to time.

It’s eight o’clock.
It’s Saturday afternoon and all my friends are out.
It was July, but freezing cold.

emphasizing time

9.38 You can form many useful time expressions using a structure with It is … or It was … and an adjective or noun phrase referring to time. The use of this structure puts emphasis on the time of the event.

You can say when something happened using when.

It was 11 o’clock at night when 16 armed men came to my house.
It was nearly midnight when Kunta finally slept.

You can say how long ago something happened using since.

It’s two weeks now since I wrote to you.
It was forty years since the war.

You can say how long the period was between one event and another using before.

It was ninety days before the search was over.
It was four minutes before half-time.

You can say how soon something will happen using to.

It was only two days to the wedding.

Commenting on an action, activity, or experience

using linking verbs

9.39 A common way of commenting on what you are doing or experiencing is to use it followed by a linking verb and an adjective or noun phrase. This is followed by an -ing participle or a to-infinitive.

It’s fun working for him.
It was difficult trying to talk to her.
It’s nice to see you with your books for a change.
It will be a stimulating experience to see Mrs Oliver.

If you want to mention the person who performs the action or has the experience, you use a prepositional phrase beginning with for and a to-infinitive.

It becomes hard for a child to develop a sense of identity.

You can also use the structure with a to-infinitive when you are recommending a course of action or saying that something is necessary.

Its important to know your own limitations.
It’s a good idea to have a little notebook handy.
It is necessary to examine this claim before we proceed any further.

using other verbs

9.40 Similar structures can be used with verbs other than linking verbs.

If you want to say what effect an experience has on someone, you can use it with a verb such as please, surprise, or shock, followed by a noun phrase and a to-infinitive. For a list of these verbs, see paragraph 9.44.

It always pleased him to think of his father.
It shocked me to see how much weight he’d lost.
It interests him to hear what you’ve been buying.

You can use it with take and a to-infinitive clause to indicate what is used in a particular action or activity, or is needed for it, for example the amount of time or the type of person that is needed.

It takes an hour to get to Northampton.
It takes an exceptional parent to cope with a child like that.
It took a lot of work to put it together.

If there is also an indirect object, this can be placed immediately after the verb.

It took me a year to save up for a new camera.

If the indirect object is expressed by a prepositional phrase, usually beginning with for, it is placed after the direct object.

It took some time for him to realize what was required.
It takes a lot more time for an adult to pick up a language than for a child.

Cost can be used in similar structures when talking about the amount of something, usually money, that is used in an activity.

It costs about £150 a week to keep someone in prison.

With find and think, you can use it as the object, followed by an adjective, and either a to-infinitive or a that-clause.

He found it hard to make friends.
He thought it right to resign immediately.

other ways of talking about actions

9.41 If you want to focus on a clause that starts with a participle or a to-infinitive, you can use this clause as the subject of the main clause, instead of it. For example, instead of saying It’s fun working for him you can say Working for him is fun.

Measuring the water correctly is most important.

In formal English, to-infinitive clauses are sometimes used.

To sell your story to the papers is a risky strategy.

Commenting on a fact that you are about to mention

9.42 When you want to comment on a fact, event, or situation, you can use it followed by a linking verb, an adjective or a noun phrase, and a that-clause giving the fact.

It is strange that it hasn’t been noticed before.
It’s a shame he didn’t come.
From the photographs it seems clear my mother was no beauty.

Here is a list of adjectives used in this structure:

amazing

apparent

appropriate

awful

bad

clear

doubtful

essential

evident

extraordinary

fair

funny

good

important

inevitable

interesting

likely

lucky

natural

obvious

odd

plain

possible

probable

queer

sad

shocking

strange

surprising

true

unbelievable

unlikely

wonderful

Here is a list of nouns used in this structure:

disgrace

marvel

nuisance

pity

shame

surprise

wonder

USAGE NOTE

9.43 After adjectives like funny, odd, and strange, a clause beginning with how is sometimes used instead of a that-clause, with the same meaning.

It’s funny how they don’t get on.
It’s strange how life turns out.
It is astonishing how he has changed.

What-clauses can be used after similar adjectives when you want to comment on something that is the object of an action.

It’s surprising what you can dig up.
It’s amazing what some of them would do for a little publicity.

Why-clauses can be used after adjectives such as obvious and clear when you want to comment on how clear the reason for something is.

Looking back on these cases, it is clear why the unions distrust the law.

Whether-clauses can be used after adjectives such as doubtful and irrelevant when you want to comment on something that may or may not be true.

It is doubtful whether supply could ever have kept up with consumption.

other verbs

9.44 If you want to say what someone thinks about a fact, you can use it followed by a verb such as please or surprise. The verb is followed by a noun phrase and a that-clause.

It won’t surprise you that I stuck it in my pocket.
It bothered her that Alice wasn’t interested in going out.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

amaze

amuse

annoy

appal

astonish

astound

bewilder

bother

delight

disgust

distress

grieve

horrify

interest

please

shock

surprise

upset

worry

passive of reporting verbs

9.45 If you want to say what is said, thought, or discovered by a group of people, you can use it as the subject of the passive form of a reporting verb, followed by a that-clause.

It was agreed that the plan should be kept secret.
It was felt that there had been some dishonest behaviour.
It was found that no cases of hypothermia had been recorded.

For a list of verbs that can be used in this way, see paragraph 7.69.

Introducing something new: there as subject

saying that something exists: There are four people in my family

9.46 When you want to say that something exists, or when you want to mention the presence of something, you can use there followed by be and a noun phrase.

 In this context, there does not refer to a place. In spoken English, the difference is often clearer, because this use of there is often pronounced without stress as /ðǝ/ (American English ðǝr), whereas the adverb of place is almost always pronounced fully as /ðeǝ/ (American English ðeǝr).

There has very little meaning in the structures that are being explained here. For example, the sentence There is a good reason for this just means A good reason for this exists.

9.47 The noun phrase is usually followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase, a wh-clause, or one of the adjectives available, present, or free.

There were thirty boys in the class.
There are three reasons why we should support this action.
There were no other jobs available.

Prepositional phrases relating to place can be put either in front of there or after the noun phrase.

On a small table there was a white china mug.
There was a box in the middle of the room.

saying that something happened: There was a sudden noise

9.48 You can also use there followed by be and a noun phrase referring to an event to say that something happened or will happen.

There was a knock at his door.
There were two general elections that year.
There will be trouble tonight.

describing something that is happening: There was a man standing next to her

9.49 When you are describing a scene or situation, you can use a structure consisting of there followed by be, a noun phrase, and an -ing participle.

For example, instead of saying Flames were coming out of it, you can say There were flames coming out of it.

There was a storm raging outside.
There were men and women working in the fields with horses.
There was a revolver lying there.

verb agreement

9.50 Usually a plural form of be is used if the noun phrase after it is plural.

There were two men in the room.

You use a singular form of be when you are giving a list of items and the first noun in the list is singular or uncountable.

There was a sofa and two chairs.

Note that you use a plural form of be in front of plural quantity expressions beginning with a, such as a lot of, and a few of.

There were a lot of people there.

You also use a plural form of be in front of numbers beginning with a, such as a hundred, a thousand, and a dozen.

There were a dozen reasons why a man might disappear.

contractions with there

9.51 In spoken and informal written English, there is and there has are often contracted to there’s; there had and there would to there’d; and there will to there’ll.

There’s no danger.
I didn’t even know there’d been a fire.

there with adjectives

9.52 There is also used with adjectives such as likely, unlikely, sure, and certain to indicate the likelihood of something occurring.

There are unlikely to be any problems with the timetable.

there with other verbs

9.53 A few other verbs can be used after there in a similar way to be. If you want to say that something seems to be the case or that something seems to have happened, you can use there with seem or appear followed by to be or to have been.

There seems to have been some carelessness recently.
There appears to be a lot of confusion on this point.

To be is sometimes omitted, especially in front of an uncountable noun.

There seems little doubt that he was hiding something.

There is sometimes used followed by a passive form of a reporting verb and the infinitive to be to indicate that people say or think that something exists. For more information on reporting verbs, see the section beginning at paragraph 7.5.

There is expected to be an announcement about the proposed building.
Behind the scenes, there is said to be intense conflict.

Happen is used in the same type of structure to indicate that a situation exists by chance.

There happened to be a roll of sticky tape lying on the desk.

You can also use tend in this kind of structure to say that something generally happens or exists.

There tend to be a lot of parties at this time of year.

formal and literary uses

9.54 Exist, remain, arise, follow, and come are sometimes used after there to say that something exists or happens. These structures occur only in formal English or literary writing.

There remained a risk of war.
There followed a few seconds’ silence.
There comes a time when you have to make a choice.

9.55 Another construction commonly used in literary writing is to begin a sentence with a prepositional phrase relating to place followed by there and a verb of position or motion.

For example, instead of saying The old church stands at the top of the hill, a writer might say At the top of the hill there stands the old church.

From the hook there hung a long black coat.
Beside them there rises a twist of blue smoke.

Focusing using adverbials

Commenting on your statement: sentence adverbials

9.56 There are many adverbials that are used to show your attitude to what you are saying or to make your hearer have a particular attitude to what you are saying. These are dealt with in paragraphs 9.57 to 9.63.

There are also some that are used to make a statement narrower or to focus attention on a particular thing that it applies to. These are dealt with in paragraphs 9.64 to 9.68.

All these adverbials are called sentence adverbials because they apply to the whole sentence they are in. They are sometimes called disjuncts in other grammars.

Sentence adverbials are often placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some are also used in other positions, as shown in the examples given below, but they are usually separated from the words around them by intonation or by commas, to show that they apply to the whole sentence.

For more general information about adverbials, see Chapter 6.

Stating what area you are referring to

being specific: financially,…, politically speaking,…

9.57 When you are making it clear what aspect of something you are talking about, you use sentence adverbials formed from classifying adjectives. For example, if you want to say that something is important in the field of politics or from a political point of view, you can say that it is politically important. These adverbials often come in front of an adjective, or at the beginning or end of a clause.

It would have been politically damaging for him to retreat.
Biologically we are not designed for eight hours’ sleep in one block.
We’ve had a very bad year financially.

The following is a list of adverbials that can refer to a particular aspect of something:

academically

aesthetically

biologically

chemically

commercially

constitutionally

culturally

ecologically

economically

emotionally

environmentally

ethically

financially

geographically

ideologically

intellectually

legally

logically

mechanically

mentally

morally

numerically

outwardly

physically

politically

psychologically

racially

scientifically

sexually

socially

spiritually

statistically

superficially

technically

technologically

visually

BE CREATIVE

9.58 Speaking is sometimes added to these adverbials. For example, technically speaking can be used to mean from a technical point of view.

He’s not a doctor, technically speaking.
He and Malcolm decided that, politically speaking, they were in complete agreement.

generalizing: basically, on the whole, etc.

9.59 You often want to avoid making a firm, forceful statement, because you are aware of facts that do not quite fit in with what you are saying.

One way of doing this is to use a sentence adverbial that shows that you are making a general, basic, or approximate statement.

Basically, the older you get, the harder it becomes.
By and large we were allowed to do as we wished.
I think on the whole we don’t do too badly.

The following adverbials are used like this:

all in all

all things considered

altogether

as a rule

at a rough estimate

basically

broadly

by and large

essentially

for the most part

fundamentally

generally

in essence

in general

on average

on balance

on the whole

overall

ultimately

Note that you can also use the expressions broadly speaking, generally speaking, and roughly speaking.

We are all, broadly speaking, middle class.
Roughly speaking, the problem appears to be confined to the tropics.

BE CREATIVE

9.60 You can also use prepositional phrases formed with classifying adjectives, such as in financial terms or from a political point of view. Similar prepositional phrases can be formed using the nouns related to these adjectives, for example using money instead of financial: in money terms, in terms of money, with regard to money, or from the money point of view.

Life is going to be a little easier in economic terms.
That is the beginning of a very big step forward in educational terms.
This state was a late developer in terms of commerce.

BE CREATIVE

9.61 Another way of saying something like with regard to money is money-wise. You add the suffix -wise to a noun referring to the aspect you mean. This is generally used to avoid the creation of long phrases.

What do you want to do job-wise when the time comes?
We are mostly Socialists vote-wise.

Emphasizing

9.62 You may want to emphasize the truth of your statement or to stress the seriousness of the situation you are describing. You can do this using the following sentence adverbials:

above all

actually

at all

believe me

by all means

even

for heaven’s sake

indeed

positively

really

simply

so

surely

to put it mildly

to say the least

truly

without exception

Sometimes we actually dared to penetrate their territory.
Above all, do not be too proud to ask for advice.
Eight years was indeed a short span of time.
I really am sorry.
Believe me, if you get robbed, the best thing to do is forget about it.

Note that indeed is often used after adjectives with very.

I think she is a very stupid person indeed.

At all is used for emphasis in negative clauses, usually at the end.

I didn’t like it at all.
I would not be at all surprised if they turned out to be the same person.

Surely is used when you are appealing for agreement.

Surely it is better to know the truth.
Here, surely, is a case for treating people as individuals.

Even is placed in front of a word or group to draw attention to a surprising part of what you are saying.

Even at midday the air was chilly.
Some men were even singing.
There was no one in the cafe, not even a waiter.

So is used as an emphatic introduction when agreeing or commenting.

‘Derek! It’s raining!’ – ‘So it is.’
‘He’s very grateful!’ – ‘So he should be.’

By all means is used for emphasis when giving permission.

If your baby likes water, by all means give it to him.

For heaven’s sake is used when making a request or asking a question.

For heaven’s sake, stop doing that, Chris.
What are you staring at, for heaven’s sake?

emphasizing that something is exact: exactly, just, precisely, etc.

9.63 You may want to emphasize that your statement is not only generally true, but that it is true in all its details. The adverbs exactly, just, and precisely are used for this.

They’d always treated her exactly as if she were their own daughter.
Their decor was exactly right.
I know just how you feel.
The peasants are weak precisely because they are poor.

Focusing on the most important thing

9.64 There are certain adverbials you can use if you want to focus on the most important thing in what you are saying, for example the main reason for something or the main quality of something.

I’m particularly interested in classical music.
They have been used in certain countries, notably in South America.
We want especially to thank all our friends for their support.

The following adverbials can be used like this:

chiefly

especially

mainly

mostly

notably

particularly

predominantly

primarily

principally

specially

specifically

restricting: only, just, etc.

9.65 Some of these adverbials can be used to emphasize that only one particular thing is involved in what you are saying.

The drug is given only to seriously ill patients.
This is solely a matter of money.
It’s a large canvas covered with just one colour.

The following adverbials can be used like this:

alone

exclusively

just

only

purely

simply

solely

selecting: especially, notably, etc.

9.66 Adverbials for focusing can be used to add a further piece of information that selects a particular group of people or things from a larger set. They can be used in this way with noun phrases, prepositional phrases, adjectives, and subordinate clauses.

I enjoy the company of young people, especially my grandchildren.
In some communities, notably the inner cities, the treatment has backfired.
They were mostly professional people.
You’ll enjoy it down in LA, especially if you get a job.

position of focusing adverbials

9.67 In careful writing, adverbials that are used for focusing are usually put immediately in front of the word or clause element they apply to, in order to avoid ambiguity. In speech, it is usually clear from the intonation of the speaker what they apply to.

However, in many cases the focusing adverbial does not necessarily focus on the word or element immediately after it. For example, in the sentence He mainly reads articles about mechanical things the word mainly almost certainly applies to about mechanical things, not to reads.

Focusing adverbials are not normally used at the beginning of a sentence. However, you can use only to begin a sentence when it focuses on the thing that follows it.

Only thirty-five per cent of four-year-olds get nursery education.
Only in science fiction is the topic touched on.

You can use just and simply at the beginning of sentences giving instructions.

Just add boiling water.
Simply remove the packaging, and plug the machine in.

Alone is always used after the element that it focuses on. Only is sometimes used in this position.

People don’t work for money alone.
They were identified by their first names only.

In informal speech and writing, other focusing adverbials are sometimes used after the element they focus on. For example, you can say We talked about me mostly instead of We talked mostly about me.

We have talked about France mainly.
Chocolate, particularly, is suspected of causing decay of the teeth.
In the early years, especially, a child may be afraid of many things.

This position can also be used when adding a piece of information.

He liked America, New York particularly.
She was busy writing, poetry mostly.

USAGE NOTE

9.68 Some other adverbials can be used to focus on additional information. The adverbs of degree largely, partly, and entirely, and adverbs of frequency such as usually and often can be used.

The situation had been created largely by the press.
The house was cheap partly because it was falling down and partly because it was in a dangerous area.
The females care for their young entirely by themselves.
They often fought each other, usually as a result of arguments over money.
Some people refuse to give evidence, often because they feel intimidated.

The phrase in particular, which has a similar meaning to particularly, can be used in the positions shown in the examples below.

Wednesday in particular is very busy.
Next week we shall be taking a look at education and in particular primary schools.
He shouted at the children and at Otto in particular. In particular, I’m going to concentrate on hydro-electricity.

Other information structures

Putting something first: In his pocket was a pen, Why she’s here I don’t know

9.69 In English, the first element in a declarative clause is usually the subject of the verb. However, if you want to emphasize another element, you can put that first instead.

Sometimes when this takes place the normal order of subject and verb is changed.

adverbials first

9.70 Adverbs and prepositional phrases can often be put first. This is the normal position for sentence adverbials (see paragraph 9.56), so they are not particularly emphatic in this position. Other phrases are sometimes placed first, usually to make descriptions more dramatic or vivid in stories and accounts.

At eight o’clock I went down for my breakfast. For years I’d had to hide what I was thinking.

The subject and verb often change place after prepositional phrases relating to place, and after negative adverbials.

In his pocket was a bag of money.
On no account must they be let in.

For general information on adverbials, see Chapter 6. Negative adverbials are dealt with in Chapter 5.

reported question first

9.71 When you are saying that you do not know something, you can put the reported question first.

What I’m going to do next I don’t quite know.
How he escaped serious injury I can’t imagine.

For more information on reported questions, see paragraphs 7.32 to 7.38.

other parts of the clause

9.72 An adjective or noun phrase can occasionally be put before a linking verb, but this is not common.

Noreen, she was called. She came from the village.
Rare is the individual who does not belong to one of these groups.

The object of a verb is sometimes put first, usually in formal or literary uses. Note that the subject still has to be mentioned.

The money I gave to the agent.
If they sensed my fear, they would attack. This I knew.

Introducing your statement: The problem is…, The thing is…

9.73 People often use structures that point forward to what they are going to say and classify or label it in some way. These are sometimes called prefacing structures or prefaces.

A preface usually introduces the second part of the same sentence, usually a that-clause or a wh-clause. However, you can also use a whole sentence as the preface to another sentence (see paragraph 9.78).

pointing forward to the second part of sentence

9.74 A common prefacing structure is the and a noun, followed by is; e.g. The answer is ….
The noun is sometimes modified by an adjective, or there is sometimes extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause after it. The nouns most commonly used in this structure are:

answer

conclusion

fact

point

problem

question

rule

solution

thing

tragedy

trouble

truth

wonder

The fact is, the point is, and the thing is are used to show that what you are about to say is important.

The simple fact is that if you get ill, you may be unable to take the examination.
The point is to find out who was responsible.
The thing is, how are we to get her out?

classifying

9.75 Some of these nouns are used in to indicate what sort of thing you are about to say.

The rule is: if in doubt, dry clean.
Is photography an art or a science? The answer is that it is both.
The obvious conclusion is that man is not responsible for what he does.

labelling

9.76 Some of these nouns are used to label what you are going to talk about.

The problem is that the demand for health care is unlimited.
The only solution is to approach each culture with an open mind.
The answer is planning, timing, and, above all, practical experience.

other ways of labelling

9.77 Split sentences (see paragraphs 9.25 to 9.30) can be used in labelling.

What we need is law and order.

Impersonal it structures with adjectives followed by a that-clause are a less emphatic way of prefacing (see paragraph 9.42).

It is interesting that the new products sell better on the web than in shops.

You can use the sentence adverbials at any rate, at least, and rather as prefaces when you are slightly correcting a previous statement, often after or.

This had saved her life; or at any rate her sanity.

Anyway can also be used, usually after the correction.

It is, for most of its length anyway, a romantic comedy.

using whole sentences to point forward

9.78 A whole sentence can be used to point forward to the sentence or sentences that follow it. For example, a sentence containing an adjective like interesting, remarkable, or funny, or a general abstract word such as reason or factor (see paragraphs 10.19 to 10.23), is often used as a preface.

It was a bit strange. Nobody was talking to each other.
This has had very interesting effects on different people.
There were other factors, of course: I too was tired of Miami.
But there were problems. How could we get to Edinburgh without a car?

Focusing on the speaker’s attitude

9.79 There are several ways that speakers can focus on their attitude towards what they are saying, and who they are talking to.

Certain adverbials indicate your attitude to what you are saying. These are explained in paragraphs 9.80 to 9.90.

Other structures can be used to show strong reactions, or exclamations. These are explained in paragraph 9.91 to 9.94.

Finally, you can show the way you feel towards people, and indicate your relationship to them by the way you address them. Different ways of addressing people are explained in paragraphs 9.95 to 9.99.

Indicating your attitude to what you are saying

indicating your opinion

9.80 One way of showing your reaction to, or your opinion of, the fact or event you are talking about is by using commenting adverbials, which comment on the whole message given in a sentence.

Surprisingly, I found myself enjoying the play.
Luckily, I had seen the play before so I knew what it was about.
It was, fortunately, not a bad accident, and Henry is only slightly hurt.
Interestingly, the solution adopted in these two countries was the same.

The following adverbials are commonly used in this way:

absurdly

admittedly

alas

anyway

astonishingly

at least

characteristically

coincidentally

conveniently

curiously

fortunately

happily

incredibly

interestingly

ironically

luckily

mercifully

miraculously

mysteriously

naturally

oddly

of course

paradoxically

please

predictably

remarkably

sadly

significantly

strangely

surprisingly

true

typically

unbelievably

understandably

unexpectedly

unfortunately

unhappily

unnecessarily

One of the uses of at least and anyway is to show that you are pleased about a particular fact, although there may be other less desirable facts.

At least we’re agreed on something.
I like a challenge anyway, so that’s not a problem.

USAGE NOTE

9.81 There are a few commenting adverbials that are often followed by enough when used to show your opinion of what you are talking about:

curiously

funnily

interestingly

oddly

strangely

Oddly enough, she’d never been abroad.
Funnily enough, I was there last week.

distancing and being more specific

9.82 There are several commenting adverbials that have the effect of showing that you are not completely committed to the truth of your statement.

Rats eat practically anything.
It was almost a relief when the race was over.
They are, in effect, prisoners in their own homes.
In a way I liked her better than Mark.

The following adverbials are used in this way:

almost

in a manner of speaking

in a way

in effect

more or less

practically

so to speak

to all intents and purposes

to some extent

up to a point

virtually

Note that almost, practically, and virtually are not used at the beginning of a clause.

Expressions such as I think, I believe, and I suppose are also used to show your lack of commitment to the truth of what you are saying.

indicating your point of view

9.83 With adverbs such as luckily, fortunately, happily, and unfortunately, you can show whose point of view you are giving by adding for and a noun phrase referring to the person.

‘Does he do his fair share of the household chores?’ – ‘Oh yes, fortunately for me.’ Luckily for me and them, love did eventually grow and flourish.

indicating a quality shown by the performer of an action

9.84 Another group of commenting adverbials is used to show a quality you think someone showed by doing an action. They are formed from adjectives that can be used to describe people, and are often placed after the subject of the sentence and in front of the verb.

The League of Friends generously provided about five thousand pounds.
The doctor had wisely sent her straight to hospital.
She very kindly arranged a delicious lunch.
Foolishly, we had said we would do the decorating.

The following adverbials are used in this way:

bravely

carelessly

cleverly

correctly

foolishly

generously

helpfully

kindly

rightly

wisely

wrongly

mentioning your justification for a statement

9.85 If you are basing your statement on something that you have seen, heard, or read, you can use a commenting adverbial to show this. For example, if you can see that an object has been made by hand, you might say It is obviously made by hand.

His friend was obviously impressed.
Higgins evidently knew nothing about their efforts.
Apparently they had a row.

These are some common adverbials used in this way:

apparently

clearly

evidently

manifestly

obviously

plainly

unmistakably

visibly

showing that you assume your hearer agrees

9.86 People often use commenting adverbials to persuade someone to agree with them. In this way, they show that they are assuming that what they are saying is obvious.

Obviously I can’t do the whole lot myself.
Price, of course, is an important factor.

The following adverbials are often used in this way:

clearly

naturally

obviously

of course

plainly

indicating reality or possibility

9.87 Some adverbials are used to show whether a situation actually exists or whether it seems to exist, or might exist.

She seems confident but actually she’s quite shy.
They could, conceivably, be right.
Extra cash is probably the best present.

The following adverbials are used like this:

actually

certainly

conceivably

definitely

doubtless

hopefully

in fact

in practice

in reality

in theory

maybe

no doubt

officially

perhaps

possibly

presumably

probably

really

unofficially

~

allegedly

apparently

nominally

ostensibly

potentially

seemingly

supposedly

theoretically

undoubtedly

The adverbials in the second group are often used in front of adjectives.

We drove along apparently empty streets.
It would be theoretically possible to lay a cable from a satellite to Earth.

indicating your attitude

9.88 If you want to make it clear what your attitude is to what you are saying, you can use a commenting adverbial.

Frankly, the more I hear about him, the less I like him.
In my opinion it was probably a mistake.
In fairness, she is not a bad mother.

Here is a list of some of the common adverbials used in this way:

as far as I’m concerned

frankly

honestly

in all honesty

in fairness

in my opinion

in my view

in retrospect

on reflection

personally

seriously

to my mind

using infinitive clauses

9.89 Another way of showing the sort of statement you are making is to use to be followed by an adjective, or to put it followed by an adverb.

I don’t really know, to be honest.
To put it bluntly, someone is lying.

politeness

9.90 When someone who is making a request wants to be polite, they use the adverb please.

May I have a word with you, please?
Would you please remove your glasses?
Please be careful.

Exclamations

9.91 Exclamations are words and structures that express your reactions emphatically. You usually show this in speech by your intonation and in writing by the use of an exclamation mark (usually called an exclamation point in American English) at the end of the sentence, although full stops are often used instead. If the exclamation is only a part of a sentence, it is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

showing your reactions

9.92 There are various ways of showing your reaction to something that you are experiencing or looking at, or that you have just been told. One way is to use an exclamation such as bother, good heavens, oh dear, or ouch.

Ow! That hurt.
‘Margaret Ravenscroft may have been responsible for the fire.’ – ‘Good heavens!’ said Dr Willoughby.
‘She died last autumn.’ – ‘Oh dear, I’m so sorry.’

Some exclamations are used only to show reactions. Here is a list of some common ones:

aha

blast

blimey

bother

bravo

crikey

damn

eek

good gracious

good grief

good heavens

good lord

goodness me

golly

gosh

hallelujah

honestly

hurray

oh

oh dear

ooh

oops

ouch

ow

really

sheesh

ugh

well I never

what

whoops

wow

yippee

you’re joking

yuk

other clause elements

9.93 Other clause elements or clauses can be used in exclamations.

Noun phrases are sometimes used to show your reaction to something. Some nouns, for example rubbish and nonsense, can be used on their own to express strong disagreement.

‘No-one would want to go out with me.’ – ‘Nonsense. You’re a very attractive man.’

Predeterminers, especially what, are often used before the noun.

What a pleasant surprise!
Such an intelligent family!
Quite a show!

Qualitative adjectives are sometimes used on their own, or with how in front of them, usually to show a positive reaction to a statement.

‘I’ve arranged a surprise party for him.’ – ‘Lovely.’
Oh! Look! How sweet!

A prepositional phrase with of can be used to specify a person, and a to-infinitive clause to refer to the action.

How nice of you to come!
How nice to see you.

Sentences with how and an adjective or adverb, or what and a noun phrase, can also be used as exclamations. The adjective, adverb, or noun phrase comes before the subject.

How nice you look!
How cleverly you hid your feelings!
What an idiot I am.
What negative thoughts we’re having.

How can be placed at the beginning of an ordinary sentence to show the intensity of a feeling or action.

How I hate posters.
How he talked!

questions that do not expect an answer

9.94 People often use questions as a way of making a comment or exclamation. They do not expect an answer. Questions like this are called rhetorical questions.

You can use a negative yes/no-question, if you want to encourage other people to agree with you.

Oh Andy, isn’t she lovely?
Wouldn’t it be awful with no Christmas!

In informal English, you can use a positive question.

‘How much?’ – ‘A hundred million.’ – ‘Are you crazy?’
Have you no shame!

Wh-questions, especially ones containing modals, are also used.

How on earth should I know?
Why must she be so nasty to me?
Why bother?

See Chapter 5 for more information about questions.

Addressing people

9.95 When you are talking to people, you can address them using their first name or, more formally, by using a title followed by their surname like Mr Jones or Mrs Matthews. Sometimes, the way you address people shows your feelings towards them or your relationship to them. For example, you might address them using a word like darling or idiot. Words used like this are called vocatives.

position

9.96 The names you use for addressing people are often placed at the end of a sentence or clause. In writing, they are usually preceded by a comma.

Where are you staying, Mr Swallow?
That’s lovely, darling.

You can put them at the beginning of a sentence in order to attract someone’s attention before speaking to them.

John, how long have you been at the university?
Dad, why have you got that suit on?

titles

9.97 When you address someone in a fairly formal way, you use their title and surname. Information about titles is given in 1.55 to 1.57.

Goodbye, Dr Kirk.
Thank you, Mr Jones.
How old are you, Miss Flewin?

Titles indicating a special qualification, rank, or job can be used on their own.

What’s wrong, Doctor?
Well, professor?

BE CAREFUL

9.98  The titles Mr, Mrs, Miss, and Ms are generally used only with a surname. To address people formally without their surname, sir and madam (usually contracted to ma’am in American English) are used, especially by employees to customers or clients, and, in American English, to address a person whose name you do not know and who appears to be older than you.

Good afternoon, sir. How can I help you?
Would you like to see the dessert menu, madam?
Can I help you with something, ma’am? (American)

other ways of addressing people

9.99 You can use noun phrases to show your opinion of someone. Those that show dislike or contempt are often used with you in front of them.

No, you fool, the other way.
Shut your big mouth, you stupid idiot.

Ways of addressing people that show affection are usually used by themselves, but my is sometimes used in more old-fashioned or humorous contexts.

Goodbye, darling.
We’ve got to go, my dear.

Nouns that refer to family or social relationships can be used for addressing people.

Someone’s got to do it, mum.
Sorry, Grandma.
She’ll be all right, mate.
Trust me, kid.

Forms of address are occasionally used in the plural.

Sit down, children.
Stop her, you fools!

Note that ladies, gentlemen, and children are only used in the plural.

Ladies and gentlemen, thank you for coming.