Making a text hold together - English Grammar

English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

10. Making a text hold together

10.1 When you speak or write, you very often want to make some connection with other things that you are saying or writing. There are several ways of using language to hold your whole message together and to give it meaning.

The most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has already been mentioned. The different ways of referring back are explained in paragraphs 10.2 to 10.39.

There are also a few ways of referring forward to what you are about to say. These are explained in paragraphs 10.40 to 10.47.

Another way of making connections between what you have just said and what you are going to say is by using sentence connectors. These are explained in paragraphs 10.48 to 10.59.

People often avoid repeating words when they are referring back. This is explained in paragraphs 10.60 to 10.81.

Referring back

10.2 When you speak or write, you very often refer back to something that has already been mentioned or make a connection with it.

pronouns

10.3 One common way of referring back to something is to use a personal pronoun such as she, it, or them, or a possessive pronoun such as mine or hers.

Andrew found an old camera in a rubbish bin. He cleaned it up and used it to win several photography awards.
Tom and Jo are back from Australia. In fact I saw them in town the other day. They were buying clothes.
I held her very close. My cheek was against hers.

Personal pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.95 to 1.106. Possessive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.107 to 1.110.

There are also other pronouns that can be used to refer back. These include pronouns such as another and many which have the same form as indefinite determiners. These are explained in paragraph 1.154.

…programs that tell the computer to do one thing rather than another.

You can also use a quantity expression or a cardinal number.

The women were asked to leave. Some of them refused.
These soldiers were ready for anything. Many of them had already been involved in fighting. …the Guatemalan earthquake which killed 24,000 people and injured 77,000.

Quantity expressions are explained in paragraphs 2.175 to 2.207. Numbers are explained in paragraphs 2.208 to 2.231.

determiners

10.4 Another common way of referring back to something is to use a definite determiner such as the or its in front of a noun.

A man and a woman were walking up the hill. The man wore shorts, a t-shirt, and sandals. The woman wore a blue dress.
Thanks, said Brody. He hung up, turned out the light in his office, and walked out to his car.

Definite determiners are explained in paragraphs 1.162 to 1.212.

Some indefinite determiners can also be used to refer back to something.

A dog was running around in the yard. Soon another dog appeared.

Here is a list of indefinite determiners that are used to refer back to something:

another

both

each

either

every

neither

other

These are explained fully in paragraphs 1.223 to 1.250.

10.5 As indicated above, pronouns and determiners used to refer back are explained in Chapter 1, where other pronouns and determiners are explained.

The demonstratives this and that are often used to refer back to whole sentences and sections of text. These uses are set out in the following section (paragraphs 10.7 to 10.17). The same section also explains other words that are used to refer back in a specific way.

other ways of referring back

10.6 There are also several other ways of referring back to something that has already been mentioned. These involve

the use of various nouns to refer back to sections of text

These are explained in paragraphs 10.18 to 10.23.

the use of so and not as substitutes for several types of word or structure that you want to avoid repeating

This use of so and not is explained in paragraphs 10.24 to 10.27.

the use of such, adjectives, and adverbs to make comparisons with things that have already been mentioned.

This is explained in paragraphs 10.28 to 10.39.

Referring back in a specific way

demonstratives referring to things

10.7This and that, and the plural forms these and those, are used to refer back clearly to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned.

They can be used both as pronouns and as determiners.

More and more money is being pumped into the educational system, and we assume this will continue.
I did a parachute jump a few months ago. This event was a lot more frightening than I had anticipated.

Note that this and that are not very often used as pronouns to refer to people. When they are used like this, they are only used in front of the verb be.

‘A kind young man helped me to my seat.’ – ‘That was John.’

10.8 When you use this or these, you are linking yourself with the thing you are referring to.

After you’ve decided on your goals, make a list. Anything that is worth doing should go on this list.
Only small trees are left. Many of these are twisted and stunted.
Over 2 million animals were destroyed. The vast majority of these animals did not need to die.

In contrast, when you use that or those, you are distancing yourself slightly from the thing you are referring to.

There’s a lot of material there. You can use some of that.
There’s one boss and that boss is in France.
There were only strangers around to observe him, and not many of those.

10.9 Although this and that are singular pronouns, you can use them to refer back to a number of things or facts that have just been mentioned, instead of using a plural pronoun.

He’s got a terrible temper, but despite all this he’s very popular.
He had played rugby at school, and had briefly been a professional footballer. That was to his favour when the job came up later.

demonstratives referring to sentences

10.10 Demonstratives can also be pronouns or determiners that refer back to a whole sentence or a number of sentences.

‘You’re the new doctor, aren’t you?’ – ‘That’s right.’
‘I’ll think about it,’ said Mum. That statement was the end of most of their discussions.
I accept neither of these arguments.

Note that when these and those are pronouns referring back to a whole statement they are only used in front of the verb be.

It was hard for me to believe these were his real reasons for wanting to get rid of me.
She put her arms around him. Thanks, Ollie. Those were her last words.

previous

10.11 You can also use the adjective previous before a noun to refer back to a section of text.

As explained in the previous paragraph, the bottle needs only to be washed in cold water.
I think we can now answer the question posed at the end of the previous chapter.

above

10.12 In written English you can also refer to what you have just mentioned by using above. You can put above before or after the noun.

I have not been able to validate the above statement.
…the figures discussed in the paragraph above.

You can also use the above without a noun phrase after it.

Keep supplies of rice and spaghetti. Also, to go with the above, Parmesan cheese and tins of tomatoes.

former and latter

10.13 When you have just referred separately to two things or groups of things, you can refer to the first one as the former and the second one as the latter. These expressions are used mainly in formal written English.

It used to be said that the oil exporting countries depended on the oil importing countries just as much as the latter depended on the former.
I could do one of two things–obey him, or get my own protection. I chose the latter.

Former and latter can also be adjectives. They always go before a noun.

You have the option of one or two bedrooms. The former choice allows room for a small bathroom.
Guy had studied Greek and philosophy at Oxford and had continued to have an interest in the latter subject.

USAGE NOTE

10.14 When you want to refer generally to a whole class of things like the one that has been mentioned, you can say things of this kind or things of that kind. Alternatively you can say this kind of thing or that kind of thing.

We’ll need a special new application to deal with payments, invoices, and things of that kind.
Most of us would attach a great deal of importance to considerations of this kind.
I don’t see many advantages in that kind of education.
All arts theatres have that type of problem.

If you are referring to things of two or more kinds, you use these and those in front of kinds, sorts, or types, followed by of and a noun.

Both these countries want to reduce the production of these kinds of weapons.
There are specific regulations governing these types of machines.
Outsiders aren’t supposed to make those kinds of jokes.

You can also use such to refer back to things of a type that has just been mentioned. This is explained in paragraphs 10.28 to 10.32.

time

10.15 The adverb then is used to refer back to the time that has just been mentioned or discussed.

In ancient times poetry was a real force in the world. Of course the world was different then.

place

10.16 The adverb there is used to refer back to the place that has just been mentioned.

I decided to try Newmarket. I soon found a job there.
I hurried back into the kitchen. There was nothing there.

manner

10.17 After describing a way of doing something or a way in which something happens, you can refer back to it using the adverb thus. Thus is a formal word.

Joanna was pouring the drinks. While she was thus engaged, Charles took the guests’ coats.
It not only pleased him to work with them, but the money thus earned gave him an enormous sense of importance.

Note that in this way or in that way are commonly used instead.

Last week I received the Entrepreneur of the Year award. It’s a privilege to be honoured in this way.

Referring back in a general way

10.18 There are various groups of nouns that are used to refer back in a general way to what has already been said. They refer to whole sections of spoken or written text.

referring to spoken or written texts

10.19 You can often refer back to what has already been said in a text by using a noun that classes it as a type of verbal action, for example an admission, suggestion, or question.

‘Martin, what are you going to do?’ – ‘That’s a good question,
Larry.’ ‘You claim to know this man’s identity?’ – ‘I do.’ – ‘Can you prove this claim?’

The noun that you use to refer back like this not only refers to the text but also shows your feelings about it. For example, if you refer back to someone’s reply to something using the noun response, this shows that your feelings about it are quite neutral, whereas if you use the noun retort, this shows that your feelings about the reply are much stronger.

Here is a list of nouns that refer back to texts, classing them as types of verbal action:

account

accusation

acknowledgement

admission

advice

allegation

announcement

answer

apology

appeal

argument

assertion

assurance

boast

charge

claim

comment

complaint

compliment

concession

condemnation

confession

contention

correction

criticism

declaration

defence

definition

demand

denial

denunciation

description

digression

disclosure

discussion

endorsement

excuse

explanation

exposition

gossip

information

judgement

lie

message

narrative

objection

observation

plea

point

prediction

promise

pronouncement

prophecy

proposal

proposition

protest

question

reference

refusal

remark

reminder

reply

report

request

response

retort

revelation

rumour

statement

stipulation

story

suggestion

summary

tale

threat

verdict

warning

Note that many of these nouns are related to reporting verbs. Reporting verbs are explained in Chapter 7.

People will feel the need to be informed and they will go wherever they can to get this information.
’I don’t know what we should do about that.’ This remark was totally unexpected.
She remarked that she preferred funerals to weddings.

referring to ideas

10.20 In the same way, you can also refer back to ideas that you know or think someone has by using a noun that also indicates your feelings about the ideas. For example, if you refer to someone’s idea using the noun view, this shows that your feelings about it are quite neutral, whereas if you use the noun delusion, this shows that your feelings are stronger.

His opinion of marriage is that it can destroy a relationship. Even previously unmarried people can hold this view if they experienced the break-up of their parents’ marriage.
There is nothing to cry for. They cannot keep me there against my will. Secure in this belief, he hugged her reassuringly and went out.

Here is a list of nouns that refer to ideas and show your feelings about the ideas:

analysis

assessment

assumption

attitude

belief

conclusion

conjecture

concept

deduction

delusion

diagnosis

doctrine

doubt

estimate

evaluation

fear

finding

guess

hope

idea

illusion

inference

insight

interpretation

misinterpretation

notion

opinion

picture

plan

position

reasoning

scheme

supposition

theory

thinking

view

viewpoint

vision

wish

referring to what is mentioned

10.21 You can also refer back to actions and events using nouns that show your feelings about the action or event. For example, if you use the noun incident to refer to an accident at a nuclear power station, this simply describes the event, whereas if you use the noun disaster, this shows your reaction to the event.

Gwen was not the kind to make a fuss. In any event, she could handle the situation.
I believed the press would cooperate on this issue.
Parents may complain that their child does not eat a variety of healthy food. This problem doesn’t arise because the parents have been lenient about food in the past.

Here is a list of nouns that refer to events and are usually neutral:

act

action

affair

aspect

case

circumstances

context

development

effect

episode

event

experience

fact

factor

feature

incident

issue

matter

method

move

phenomenon

position

possibility

practice

process

reason

respect

result

situation

state

state of affairs

subject

system

thing

topic

way

Here is a list of nouns that refer to events and show your feelings about them:

achievement

advantage

answer

catastrophe

crisis

debacle

difficulty

disadvantage

disaster

exploit

feat

fiasco

gaffe

nightmare

plight

predicament

problem

solution

tragedy

BE CREATIVE

10.22 When you are referring back to something that has been said or mentioned, you can use almost any noun that refers to texts, ideas, events, and sometimes even to people. The noun you use allows you to express your exact reaction to the thing that is being referred to. For example, you can refer to a football defeat using nouns such as tragedy or farce, and you can refer to an argument using nouns such as row and battle.

referring to pieces of writing

10.23 You can refer in a neutral way to a previous piece of writing.

As explained in the previous paragraph, the bottle needs only to be washed clean.
We have seen in this chapter how the tax burden has increased fastest for households with children.

Here is a list of nouns used to refer to a piece of writing:

chapter

example

excerpt

extract

paragraph

passage

phrase

quotation

section

sentence

statement

summary

table

text

words

Substituting for something already mentioned: using so and not

so as a substitute for an adjective

10.24 So is sometimes used in formal English as a substitute for an adjective that has already been mentioned.

They are wildly inefficient and will remain so for some time to come.
They are just as isolated, if not more so, than before.

so and not after if

10.25 So is used to substitute for a clause after if, when the action or situation you are talking about has already been mentioned.

Will that be enough? If so, do not ask for more.

Not is used to substitute for a negative clause, to suggest the opposite situation to the one already mentioned.

You will probably have one of the two documents mentioned below. If not, you will have to buy one.

so and not with reporting verbs

10.26 So and not are also used to substitute for clauses after some common reporting verbs. They are also used after the expression I’m afraid, which is used to report an unwelcome fact.

‘Are you all right?’ – ‘I think so.’
You’re a sensible woman – I’ve always said so.
‘You think he’s failed, don’t you?’ – ‘I’m afraid so.’
‘It doesn’t often happen.’ – ‘No, I suppose not.’
‘You haven’t lost the ticket, have you?’ – ‘I hope not.’

Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be followed by so and not:

believe

expect

hope

imagine

say

suppose

tell

think

Note that the use of not as a substitute with think, expect, and believe is rare or formal. When not is occasionally used with say, there is a modal in front of say.

‘Is this a coincidence?’ – ‘I would say not.’

Occasionally so is put at the beginning of the clause. This often has the effect of casting doubt on the truth of the fact involved.

Everybody in the world, so they say, has a double.

So can also be used at the beginning of a clause for emphasis. This is explained in paragraph 9.62.

do so

10.27 Do so is used to mean perform the action just mentioned. The various forms of the verb do can be used. This structure is rather formal.

A signal which should have turned to red failed to do so.
Most of those who signed the letter did so under pressure from their bosses.
She asked him to wait while she considered. He did so.
Individuals are free to choose private insurance, and 10% of the population have done so.

Comparing with something already mentioned

10.28 The word such can be used in several ways to hold a text together. You use it when you want to indicate that something is of the same sort as something that has already been mentioned. The grammatical patterns of such are unique. It can behave as a determiner, a predeterminer, and an adjective.

such as a determiner

10.29 Such can be a determiner referring back to something that has already been mentioned.

Most of the state’s electricity comes from burning imported oil, the highest use of such fuel in the country.
New business provides the majority of new jobs. By their nature, such businesses take risks.

such as a predeterminer

10.30 Such can be a predeterminer (see paragraph 1.251) referring back to something that has already been mentioned. It comes in front of the determiner a or an.

They lasted for hundreds of years. On a human time scale, such a period seems an eternity.
On one occasion the school parliament discussed the dismissal of a teacher. But such an event is rare.

such as an adjective

10.31 Such can be an adjective referring back to something that has already been mentioned.

He can be very cruel. This was one such occasion.
‘Did you call me a liar?’ – ‘I never said any such thing!’
Mr Bell’s clubs were privately owned. Like most such clubs everywhere, they were organizations of people who shared a certain interest.
I hated the big formal dances and felt very out of place at the one or two such events I attended.

adjectives

10.32 Some adjectives are used to indicate a comparison, contrast, or connection with something that has already been mentioned.

same

10.33 The adjective same is used attributively to emphasize that you are referring back to something that has just been mentioned.

A man opened the door and said Next please. About ten minutes later, the same man returned.
He watched her climb into a compartment of the train, and he chose the same one so he could watch her more closely.

Note that when same is used before a noun or pronoun, it nearly always follows the, but it can occasionally follow other definite determiners.

These same smells may produce depression in others.

10.34 Same can also come after a linking verb when you want to show that something is similar in every way to something that has just been mentioned. When same is used after a linking verb it always follows the.

The Queen treated us very well. The Princess Royal was just the same.
My brothers and myself were very poor, but happy. I think other families were the same.

10.35 You can also use the same without a following noun as the subject or object of a clause, to refer back to something that has just been mentioned.

The conversion process is very inefficient. The same is true of nuclear power stations.
‘I’ve never heard of him.’ – ‘I wish I could say the same.’

The same thing can be used exactly like the same, as a subject or object.

He was stopped and sent back to get a ticket. On the return journey the same thing happened.
I learnt how to cheat and win every time. And I’m not proud of the fact that I taught a number of other people to do the same thing.

opposite and reverse

10.36 The adjectives opposite and reverse are used to say that something is as different as possible from the thing that has already been mentioned. They usually follow the.

It was designed to impress, but it probably had the opposite effect.
In the past ten years I think we’ve seen the reverse process.

When opposite is used before a noun, it occasionally follows an.

Other studies draw an opposite conclusion.

You can sometimes use the opposite and the reverse without a following noun to refer back to something.

The police officer said that we would have to learn to live with crime. I think the opposite is true; we have to learn not to live with crime.
He is well known for saying one thing and doing the opposite.
Older males are often desirable to women but the reverse is not usually true.
It hasn’t happened. The reverse has happened.

other adjectives

10.37 You can also use a variety of other adjectives to say that something is similar to, different from, or connected with something that has already been mentioned. Some of these adjectives are only used before a noun and others can also come after a linking verb.

She wore a red dress with a red matching hat.
West Germany, Denmark and Italy face declines in young people. We are confronted with a contrasting problem.
That’s what I would say. But his attitude was different altogether.

Here is a list of adjectives that can only be used in front of a noun to refer back:

adjacent

conflicting

contradictory

contrary

contrasting

corresponding

equal

equivalent

matching

opposing

parallel

Here is a list of adjectives that can be used both in front of a noun and after a linking verb to refer back:

analogous

comparable

compatible

different

identical

related

separate

similar

unrelated

adverbials

10.38 To say that an action or a way of doing something is similar to the one just mentioned, you can use in the same way, in a similar way, similarly, or likewise.

She spoke of Jim with pride. And presumably she spoke to him of me in the same way.
Sam was engaged in conversation; Richard and Patrick were similarly occupied.

10.39 To show that an action or a way of doing something is different from the one just described, you can use the adverbs otherwise and differently.

I thought life was simply splendid. I had no reason to think otherwise.
She was ashamed of her actions, but she had been totally incapable of doing otherwise.
My parents were very strict, but I’m going to do things differently with my kids.

Referring forward

10.40 There are various ways of referring forward to things that are about to be mentioned. These ways often involve the nouns listed in paragraphs 10.18 to 10.23, which are more commonly used when you are referring back to something.

this and these

10.41 The use of this to refer back to something was explained in paragraphs 10.7 to 10.10. You can also use this or these to refer forward to what you are about to say. They can be both pronouns and determiners. Note that thesecan only be a pronoun when it is the subject.

Well, you might not believe this but I don’t drink very much.
Perhaps I shouldn’t say this, but I did on one occasion break the law.
This chapter will follow the same pattern as the previous one.
These were the facts: on a warm February afternoon, Gregory Clark and a friend were cruising down Washington Boulevard in a Mustang.
On the blackboard these words were written: Reading. Writing. Arithmetic.

10.42 When this and these are used as determiners to refer forward to something, they are most commonly used with nouns that refer to a piece of writing (see paragraph 10.23). Sometimes they are used with nouns that refer to what is said (see paragraph 10.19) and with nouns that refer to ideas (see paragraph 10.20). They occasionally occur with nouns that refer to actions or events (see paragraph 10.21).

following

10.43 You can also refer to what you are about to mention using the adjective following before a noun. When following is used like this, it is used with nouns that refer to texts, ideas, and pieces of writing (see paragraphs 10.19, 10.20, and 10.23.). Very occasionally, it is used with nouns that refer to actions and events (see paragraph 10.21.).

After a while he received the following letter: Dear Sir, The Secretary of State regrets that he is unable to reconsider your case.
The following account is based on notes from that period.
They arrived at the following conclusion: children with disabilities are better off in normal classes.

You can also used the following without a noun phrase after it.

…a box containing the following: a packet of tissues, two handkerchiefs, and a clothes brush.

next

10.44 The adjective next is often used to refer forward with nouns that refer to pieces of writing.

In the next chapter, we will examine this theory in detail.

below

10.45 You can also use below to refer forward to something you are about to mention. You use below like this after nouns that refer to texts and pieces of writing (see paragraphs 10.19 and 10.23).

For full details, see the report below.
The figures can be seen in the table below.

Below can occasionally be used to refer forward with nouns that refer to actions and things. When it is used with them, it comes after a word like given, shown, or set out.

The report given below appeared in the Daily Mail on 8 August 1985.

such

10.46 Such is sometimes used as a predeterminer to refer to a kind of thing that is specified immediately afterwards in a phrase or clause beginning with as.

You might think that in such a book as this, there is no need to deal with these matters.

Such is also sometimes used to qualify a noun, followed by a specifying phrase or clause beginning with as.

…a general rise in prices such as occurred in the late 1960s.
Try putting the items under headings such as I’ve suggested.

other ways

10.47 There are also other ways of referring forward to things that also involve focusing on the thing referred to. These involve split sentences, which are explained in paragraphs 9.25 to 9.30 and sentences beginning with there, which are explained in paragraphs 9.46 to 9.55.

Showing connections between sentences

10.48 The following section explains the functions of different groups of linking expressions, or sentence connectors. Sentence connectors are used to show what sort of connection there is between one sentence and another.

indicating an addition

10.49 In the course of speaking or writing, you can introduce a related comment or an extra reinforcing piece of information using one of the following adverbials:

also

as well

at the same time

besides

furthermore

moreover

on top of that

too

I cannot apologize for his comments. Besides, I agree with them.
Moreover, new reserves continue to be discovered.
His first book was published in 1932, and it was followed by a series of novels. He also wrote a book on British pubs.
The demands of work can cause gaps in regular attendance. On top of that, many students are offered no extra lessons during the vacations.

Note that too is not usually placed at the beginning of a sentence.

He was hard-working, and honest, too.

indicating a similar point

10.50 You can show that you are adding a fact that illustrates the same point as the one you have just made, or a suggestion that has the same basis, by using one of the following adverbials:

again

by the same token

equally

in the same way

likewise

similarly

Every baby’s face is different from every other’s. In the same way, every baby’s pattern of development is different.
Being a good player doesn’t guarantee you will be a good manager, but, by the same token, neither does having all the coaching badges.
Never feed your rabbit raw potatoes that have gone green–they contain a poison. Similarly, never feed it rhubarb leaves.

contrasts and alternatives

10.51 When you want to add a sentence that contrasts with the previous one or gives another point of view, you can use one of the following adverbials:

all the same

alternatively

by contrast

conversely

even so

however

instead

nevertheless

nonetheless

on the contrary

on the other hand

rather

still

then again

though

yet

He had forgotten that there was a rainy season in the winter months. It was, however, a fine, soft rain and the air was warm.
Her aim is to punish the criminal. Nevertheless, she is not convinced that imprisonment is always the answer.
Her children are hard work. She never loses her temper with them though.

If you are mentioning an alternative, you can use instead, alternatively, or conversely.

People who normally consulted her began to ask other people’s advice instead.
The company is now considering an appeal. Alternatively, they may submit a new application.

causes

10.52 When you want to say that the fact you are mentioning exists because of the fact or facts previously given, you link your statements using one of the following adverbs:

accordingly

as a result

consequently

hence

so

thereby

therefore

thus

Oxford and Cambridge have a large income of their own. So they are not in quite the same position as other universities.
It isn’t giving any detailed information. Therefore it isn’t necessary.
We want a diverse press and we haven’t got it. I think as a result a lot of options are closed to us.

showing sequence in time

10.53 Some time adverbials are used to indicate that something takes place after or before an event that you have already mentioned or at the same time as that event:

afterwards

at the same time

beforehand

earlier

ever since

finally

first

in the meantime

last

later

meanwhile

next

presently

previously

simultaneously

since

soon

soon after

subsequently

suddenly

then

throughout

Go and see Terry Brown about it. Come back to me afterwards.
Published in 1983, the book has since gone through six reprints.
Never set out on a journey without telling someone beforehand.
We look forward to the Commission studying this agreement. In the meantime we are pressing ahead with our plans.

putting points in order

10.54 In formal writing and speech, people often want to say what stage they have reached in writing or speaking. They do this using the following sentence connectors:

first

firstly

second

secondly

third

thirdly

finally

in conclusion

lastly

then

to sum up

What are the advantages of geothermal energy? Firstly, there’s no fuel required, the energy already exists. Secondly, there’s plenty of it.
Finally, I want to say something about the heat pump.

conjunctions

10.55 When people are speaking or writing informally, they often add an extra piece of information using one of the conjunctions and, but, yet, or, and nor to begin a new sentence.

He’s a very good teacher. And he’s good-looking.
I think it’s motor cycling. But I’m not sure.
It’s not improving their character. Nor their home life.

sentence connectors after and or but

10.56 Sentence connectors are often put after the conjunctions and or but at the beginning of a clause or sentence.

That will take a long time and besides you’d get it wrong.
They were familiar and therefore all right.
Her accent is not perfect. But still, it’s a marvellous performance.

If you are linking two negative sentences or clauses, you can put either at the end of the second one.

I can’t use it, but I can’t bear not to use it either.

Linking parts of a conversation together

10.57 Sometimes people want to avoid abruptness when changing the topic of conversation, or when starting to talk about a different aspect of it. They do this by using a particular group of sentence connectors.

The following adverbials are commonly used in this way:

actually

anyhow

anyway

by the way

incidentally

look

now

now then

okay

right

so

then

well

well now

well then

you know

They usually occur at the beginning of a clause. However, a few of them can be used in other places in the clause, when you want to pause or want to draw attention to the fact that you are introducing a new topic.

Actually, anyhow, anyway, by the way, incidentally, and you know can be used at the end of a clause. By the way, incidentally, and you know can be used after the subject or after the first word in a verb phrase.

Here are some examples showing sentence connectors being used to change the topic of a conversation:

Actually, Dan, before I forget, she asked me to tell you about my new job. Well now, we’ve got a very big task ahead of us.

Here are some examples showing sentence connectors being used to start talking about a different aspect of the same topic:

What do you sell there anyway?
This approach, incidentally, also has the advantage of being cheap.

Then by itself is not used at the beginning of a clause, only at the end.

That’s all right then.
Are you fond of her, then?

10.58 Some sentence connectors are used at the beginning of a clause to introduce a fact, often one that corrects the statement just made. They can also be used at the end of a clause, and elsewhere, to emphasize the fact.

actually

as a matter of fact

as it happens

I mean

indeed

in fact

Note that actually is used here to add information on the same topic, whereas in the previous paragraph it indicated a change of topic.

Actually, I do know why he wrote that letter.
He rather envies you actually.
I’m sure you’re right. In fact, I know you’re right.
There’s no reason to be disappointed. As a matter of fact, this could be rather amusing.
They cannot hop or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to run.

You see is used to introduce or point to an explanation.

‘Are you surprised?’ – ‘No. You see, I’ve known about it for a long time.’
He didn’t have anyone to talk to, you see.

After all is used to introduce or point to a reason or justification of what you have just said.

She did not regret accepting his offer. He was, after all, about the right age.

USAGE NOTE

10.59 Prepositional phrases are sometimes used to introduce a new topic or a different aspect of the same topic. As to or as for can be used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce a slightly different topic.

As to what actually transpired at the headquarters, there are many differing accounts.
We will continue to expand our business. As for our competitors, they may well struggle.

With and in the case of are sometimes used to mention another thing that is involved in a type of situation that was previously mentioned.

With children, you have to plan a bit more carefully.
When the death was expected, the period of grief is usually shorter than in the case of an unexpected death.

Leaving words out

10.60 In English, people often leave words out rather than repeating them. Leaving words out is called ellipsis. This sometimes occurs in clauses that are linked by words like and, but or or, and coordinated groups of words. These are explained in paragraphs 8.152 to 8.176.

This section deals with how words can be left out in subordinate clauses and separate sentences as well as in coordinate clauses. The second clause or sentence could be said or written by the same person, or it could be part of a reply or comment by someone else. Omission of certain words in conversation is explained in paragraphs 10.74 to 10.81.

contrasting subjects

10.61 If you have just described an action or state and you want to introduce a new subject only, you do not need to repeat the rest of the sentence. Instead, you can just use an auxiliary.

There were 19- and 20-year-olds who were earning more than I was.
They can hear higher sounds than we can.

contrasting the verb form or the modal verb

10.62 If you want to change only the verb form or the modal, you use a new auxiliary, with a subject referring to the same person or thing.

They would stop it if they could.
Very few of us have that sort of enthusiasm, although we know we ought to.
I never went to Stratford, although I probably should have.
This topic should have attracted far more attention from the press than it has.

do

10.63 If you choose no other auxiliary verb, you usually use do, does, or did.

You look just as bad as he does.
I think we want it more than they do.

be as a main verb

10.64 However, the linking verb be is repeated, in an appropriate form. For example, I was scared and the children were too.

‘I think you’re right.’ – ‘I’m sure I am.’

If the second verb phrase contains a modal, you usually put be after the modal.

‘I’m from Glasgow.’ – ‘I thought you might be.’ ‘He thought that it was hereditary in his case.’ – ‘Well, it might be.’

However, this is not necessary if the first verb phrase also contains a modal.

I’ll be back as soon as I can.

Be is sometimes used after a modal in the second clause to contrast with another linking verb such as seem, look, or sound.

‘It looks like tea to me.’ – ‘Yes, it could be.’

have as a main verb

10.65 If the first verb is the main verb have, a form of have is sometimes used instead of a form of do.

She probably has a temperature–she certainly looks as if she has.

leaving words out with not

10.66 You can make the second verb phrase negative by adding not to the auxiliary. These combinations are contracted in informal speech and writing to don’t, hasn’t, isn’t, mustn’t, and so on (see paragraph 5.59 for a list of these contractions). You use the same forms for a negative response to a question.

Some managed to vote but most of them didn’t.
‘You’re staying here!’ – ‘But Gertrude, I can’t, I mustn’t!’
‘And did it work?’ – ‘No, I’m afraid it didn’t.’
Widows receive state benefit; widowers do not.
He could have listened to the radio. He did not.

USAGE NOTE

10.67 With passives, be is often, but not always, kept after a modal.

He argued that if tissues could be marketed, then anything could be.

However, with perfect passives, you can just use the auxiliary have or has. For example, you could say, Have you been interviewed yet? I have.

Note that when a modal with have is used for a passive or progressive verb phrase, been cannot be omitted.

I’m sure it was repeated in the media. It must have been.
She was not doing her homework as she should have been.

10.68 If the second verb phrase contains the auxiliary have in any form, speakers of British English sometimes add done to the group. For example, instead of saying He says he didn’t see it but he must have, they sometimes say He says he didn’t see it but he must have done.

He hadn’t kept a backup, but he should have done.

 American speakers repeat only the auxiliary verb have.

He hadn’t kept a backup, but he should have.
It would have been nice to have won, and I might have done if I had tried harder.

Similarly, British speakers sometimes use do after modals.

He responded almost as a student might do.

 American speakers do not use do after modals.

Note that when the verb used in the first mention of an action or state is the main verb have, instead of using do after a modal in the second mention, you often use have instead.

‘Do you think that academics have an understanding of the real world?’ – ‘No, and I don’t think they should have.’

10.69 Usually, the clause with words omitted comes after a clause in which the action or state has been mentioned in full with a main verb. Occasionally, however, for a deliberate effect, it comes before the clause that mentions the action or state in full.

The problems in the economy are now being reflected, as they should be, in the housing market

repeating the main verb

10.70 If you want to be emphatic, you repeat the main verb, instead of leaving it out.

It was the largest swarm of wasps that had ever been seen or that ever would be seen.

contrasting objects and adverbials

10.71 Note that if you want to contrast two different things affected by an action, or two different factors or circumstances, you can put a new object or adverbial in the second clause, with an auxiliary or form of be.

Cook nettles exactly as you would spinach.
You don’t get as much bickering on a farm as you do in most jobs.
Survival rates for cancer are twice as high in America as they are in Britain.
No one liked being young then as they do now.

However, the main verb is sometimes repeated.

Can’t you at least treat me the way you treat regular clients?

USAGE NOTE

10.72 You can omit a verb after the semi-modals dare and need, but only when they are used in the negative.

‘I don’t mind telling you what I know.’ – ‘You needn’t. I’m not asking you for it.’ ‘You must tell her the truth.’ – ‘But, Neill, I daren’t.’

Similarly, the verb is only omitted after the modal expressions had rather and would rather when they are used in the negative. However, the verb is sometimes omitted after had better even when it is used affirmatively.

‘Will she be happy there?’ – ‘She’d better.’
It’s just that I’d rather not.

10.73 You can also leave words out of to-infinitive clauses. Instead of using a full to-infinitive clause after a verb, you can just use to, if the action or state has already been mentioned.

Don’t tell me if you don’t want to.
At last he agreed to do what I asked him to.

You can also do this in conversation.

‘Do you ever visit a doctor?’ I asked her. – ‘No. We can’t afford to.’

Note that there are some verbs, such as try and ask, that are also often used on their own, without to.

They couldn’t help each other, and it was ridiculous to try.
I’m sure she’ll help you, if you ask.

In conversation

10.74 People often leave words out in conversation in replies and questions. When this happens, it can involve leaving out the main verb in the ways that have been explained above (see paragraphs 10.60 to 10.73). This is common with questions that show that you find what someone has said interesting or surprising, or that you do not agree with them. These questions always have a pronoun as their subject.

‘He gets free meals.’ – ‘Does he?’
‘They’re starting up a new arts centre there.’ – ‘Are they?’
‘I’ve checked everyone.’ – ‘Have you now?’

leaving words out in questions

10.75 You can often leave words out in questions when the context makes it clear what is meant. The question can consist of just a wh-word.

‘Someone’s in the house.’ – ‘Who?’ – ‘I think it might be Gary.’
‘But I’m afraid there’s more.’ – ‘What?’
‘Can I speak to you?’ I asked, undaunted. – ‘Why?’ – ‘It’s important.’
‘We’re going on holiday tomorrow.’ – ‘Where?’ – ‘To Majorca.’

Note that you can also use why not.

‘Maria! We won’t discuss that here.’ – ‘Why not?’

Note also that you can use a wh-word after a reporting verb, especially why.

I asked why.
They enquired how.

10.76 Other questions can also consist of only a very few words when the context makes it clear what is meant. Short questions of this kind are often used to express surprise or to offer something to someone.

‘Could you please come to Ira’s right away and help me out?’–
Now?’ ‘Tonight?’– ‘It’s incredibly important.’
‘He’s going to die, you see.’– ‘Die?’
Cup of coffee?’ Lionel asked, kindly.
He drank the water and handed me the glass. ‘More?’ ‘No, that’s just fine, thank you.’

leaving words out in replies

10.77 When you reply to wh-questions, you can often use one word or a group of words rather than a full sentence. You do this to avoid repeating words used in the question. For example, if someone asks What is your favourite colour?, the normal reply is a single word, for example Blue, rather than a sentence such as My favourite colour is blue.

‘What’s your name?’ – ‘Pete.’
‘How do you feel?’ – ‘Strange.’
‘Where do you come from?’ – ‘Cardiff.’
‘Where are we going? – ‘Up the coast.’
‘How long have you been out of this country?’ – ‘About three months.’
‘How much money is there in that case?’ – ‘Six hundred pounds.’
‘Why should they want me to know?’ – ‘To scare you, perhaps. Who can tell?’

Wh-questions are explained in paragraphs 5.21 to 5.34.

10.78 You can often use a sentence adverbial or an adverb of degree rather than a sentence in answer to a yes/no-question.

‘Do you think you could keep your mouth shut if I was to tell you something?’ – ‘Definitely.’
‘Do you think they’re very important?’ – ‘Maybe.’
‘Do you enjoy life at the university?’ – ‘Oh yes, very much.’
‘Are you interested?’ – ‘Very.’
‘Are you ready, Matthew?’ – ‘Not quite.’
‘Is she sick?’ – ‘Not exactly.’

10.79 You can also answer a yes/no-question with a pronoun and a verb phrase that reflects the original question. The absence of not in your reply indicates yes. The presence of not indicates no.

‘Does Lydia Walker live here?’ – ‘She does.’
‘Have you taken advantage of any of our offers in the past?’ – ‘I haven’t.’

Yes/no-questions are explained in paragraphs 5.12 to 5.14. Sentence adverbials are listed in Chapter 9 (9.56 to 9.68). Adverbs of degree are listed in Chapter 2 (2.140 to 2.156) and Chapter 6 (6.45 to 6.52).

leaving words out when you are agreeing

10.80 You often leave words out when you want to show that you agree with something that has just been said, or to say that it also applies to someone or something else. One way of doing this is by using too after an auxiliary or form of be.

‘I like baked beans.’ – ‘Yes, I do too.’
‘I failed the exam.’ – ‘I did too.’

The other way of doing this is to use so followed by the auxiliary or form of be, followed by the subject.

‘I find that amazing.’ – ‘So do I.’

Note that you can also use this form within a sentence to say that someone or something is the same.

He does half the cooking and so do I.

10.81 You can also leave out words when you want to show that you agree with something negative that has just been said, or to say that it also applies to someone or something else. One way of doing this is by using an auxiliary or form of be followed by not and either.

‘I don’t know.’ – ‘I don’t either.’
‘I can’t see how she does it.’ – ‘I can’t either.’

The other way is to use nor or neither followed by an auxiliary or form of be, followed by the subject.

‘I don’t like him.’ – ‘Nor do I.’
‘I’m not going to change my mind.’ – ‘Nor should you.’
‘I’m not joking, Philip.’ – ‘Neither am I.’

Note that you can also do this within a sentence.

I don’t know what you’re talking about, Miss Haynes, and I’m pretty sure you don’t either.
I will never know what was in his head at the time, nor will anyone else.
I can’t do anything about this and neither can you.