Making a message: types of verb

English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

3. Making a message: types of verb

3.1 When you make a statement, you use a clause. A clause that is used to make a statement contains a noun phrase, which refers to the person or thing that you are talking about, and a verb phrase, which shows what sort of action, process, or state you are talking about.

The noun phrase, which usually comes in front of the verb, is called the subject of the verb or the clause. For example, in the clause Ellen laughed, Ellen is the subject. The formation of noun phrases is explained in Chapters 1 and 2.

A verb phrase used in a statement has a particular form, and shows agreement with number and person. The formation of verb phrases is explained in the Reference Section. Quite often in statements the verb phrase is a single word, and it is quite common to talk about the verb of a clause.

This chapter deals mainly with the use of verbs in active clauses, where the subject is the performer of an action rather than the person or thing affected by an action. The use of verbs in passive clauses, where the subject is the person or thing affected, is explained in paragraphs 9.8 to 9.24.

Showing who is involved

intransitive verbs

3.2 If an action or event involves only one person or thing, you mention only the performer of the action (the subject) and the action (the verb).

The girl screamed.
I waited.
An awful thing has happened.

Verbs like this are called intransitive verbs.

However, you can then mention another person or thing that is involved using a prepositional phrase.

She walked across the street.

Intransitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.8 to 3.13.

transitive verbs

3.3 If the action or event involves another person or thing that the action affects, relates to, or produces, you put a noun phrase referring to them after the verb. This is called the object of the verb. If it is necessary to distinguish it from other objects, it is called the direct object.

He closed the door.
I hate sport.
Some of the women noticed me.

Verbs like this are called transitive verbs. Transitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.14 to 3.25.

Reflexive verbs and delexical verbs are special kinds of transitive verbs. They are explained in paragraphs 3.26 to 3.31 and 3.32 to 3.45.

intransitive or transitive verbs

3.4 The majority of verbs in English give you the option of presenting an event either as involving the subject only, or as involving the subject and someone or something else as a direct object.

She paints by holding the brush in her teeth.
Yarkov paints vivid portraits of friends and acquaintances.
Gus asked me whether I’d like to have dinner with him. I accepted.
I accepted the invitation.

This means that most verbs can be used with or without an object. Verbs that can be used like this are explained in paragraphs 3.46 to 3.54.

With some verbs, the thing affected by the action can be put as the object of the verb or as the object of a preposition after the verb. These verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.55 to 3.58.

Ergative verbs are a special kind of verb that can be used with or without an object. They are explained in paragraphs 3.59 to 3.67.

reciprocal verbs

3.5 Reciprocal verbs refer to actions that involve people affecting each other in the same way with the same action. There are two types of reciprocal verb. One type is used either with or without an object.

We met at Hargreaves’ place.
I had met him in Zermatt.

The other type is used without an object, and with or without a prepositional phrase mentioning one of the participants.

We argued over this question for a long time.
I argued with this man for half an hour.

Reciprocal verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.68 to 3.72.

verbs with two objects

3.6 Some transitive verbs also allow you to mention a person who benefits from an action or receives something as a result. The verb is then followed by both a direct object and an indirect object.

Hand me my bag.
His uncle had given him books on India.
She sends you her love.
She passed him his cup.

Verbs that can take an indirect object as well as a direct object are explained in paragraphs 3.73 to 3.82.

phrasal verbs, compound verbs

3.7 Some verbs have two or three parts. These are phrasal verbs and compound verbs. Phrasal verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116, and compound verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.117 to 3.125.

Intransitive verbs: talking about events that involve only the subject

3.8 When you are talking about an action or event that does not have an object, you use an intransitive verb.

Her whole body ached.
Such people still exist.
My condition deteriorated.

Many intransitive verbs describe physical behaviour or the making of sounds.

Bob coughed.
Vicki wept bitterly.
The gate squeaked.

3.9 Here is a list of verbs that are normally used without an object and that usually or often have no adverb or prepositional phrase after them:

ache

advance

arise

arrive

bleed

blush

cease

collapse

cough

crackle

cry

decay

depart

deteriorate

die

digress

dine

disappear

disintegrate

doze

droop

economize

elapse

ensue

erupt

evaporate

exist

expire

faint

fall

falter

fidget

flinch

flourish

fluctuate

gleam

growl

happen

hesitate

howl

itch

kneel

laugh

moan

occur

pause

persist

prosper

quiver

recede

relent

rise

roar

scream

shine

shiver

sigh

sleep

slip

smile

snarl

sneeze

snore

snort

sob

sparkle

speak

squeak

squeal

stink

subside

sulk

surrender

swim

throb

tingle

vanish

vary

vibrate

wait

waver

weep

wilt

work

yawn

A few of these verbs are used with an object in idioms or with very specific objects, but they are intransitive in all their common meanings.

intransitive verbs followed by phrases that begin with a preposition

3.10 Many intransitive verbs always or typically have an adverb or prepositional phrase after them. With some, only a prepositional phrase beginning with a particular preposition is possible. This use of a preposition allows something affected by the action to be mentioned, as the object of the preposition.

Everything you see here belongs to me.
Landlords often resorted to violence.
I sympathized with them.
I’m relying on Bill.
He strives for excellence in all things.

3.11 Here is a list of verbs that always or typically have a particular preposition after them when they are used with a particular meaning:

rave about

insure against

plot against

react against

hint at

alternate between

differentiate between

oscillate between

appeal for

atone for

care for

clamour for

hope for

long for

opt for

pay for

qualify for

strive for

yearn for

detract from

emanate from

emerge from

radiate from

shrink from

stem from

suffer from

believe in

consist in

culminate in

dabble in

indulge in

invest in

result in

wallow in

lapse into

complain of

conceive of

consist of

despair of

learn of

smack of

think of

tire of

bet on

feed on

insist on

spy on

trample on

adhere to

allude to

amount to

appeal to

aspire to

assent to

attend to

belong to

bow to

cling to

defer to

dictate to

lead to

listen to

object to

refer to

relate to

resort to

revert to

stoop to

alternate with

associate with

consort with

contend with

flirt with

grapple with

sympathize with

teem with

Here is a list of verbs that can have either of two prepositions after them with the same or very similar meaning:

abound in

abound with

cater for

cater to

conform to

conform with

contribute to

contribute towards

depend on

depend upon

dote on

dote upon

embark on

embark upon

end in

end with

engage in

engage on

enthuse about

enthuse over

gravitate to

gravitate towards

hunger after

hunger for

improve on

improve upon

liaise between

liaise with

lust after

lust for

prevail on

prevail upon

profit by

profit from

rely on

rely upon

revolve around

revolve round

spring from

spring out of

Note that some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive when they are followed by a preposition. See paragraph 9.23.

intransitive verbs followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase

3.12 Other verbs can be followed by a variety of prepositional phrases, or an adverb, often relating to time or place.

Verbs of movement are usually or often followed by adverbs or phrases relating to direction.

He went back to his own room.
I travelled south.

Here is a list of verbs of movement:

come

crawl

creep

drift

flow

gallop

glide

hurtle

plunge

run

soar

spring

stroll

travel

walk

Look, gaze, glance, and stare are also followed by adverbs or phrases relating to direction.

Verbs of position are usually followed by adverbs or phrases relating to position.

Donald was lying on the bed.
She lives in Lausanne.
I used to live here.

Here is a list of verbs of position:

belong

hang

lie

live

be located

remain

sit

be situated

stand

stay

Verbs such as extend or stretch are followed by adverbs or phrases relating to extent.

…an area stretching from London to Cambridge.

There are a few verbs that are always followed by other types of adverb or phrase.

It behaves rather like a squirrel.
My brother agreed to act as a go-between.
I hoped that the absorption of poison hadn’t progressed too far.

Here is a list of verbs that are always followed by other types of adverb or phrase:

act

behave

campaign

progress

verbs that are occasionally transitive

3.13 There are a few verbs that are usually intransitive but that can be transitive when they are used with one particular object. The object is usually directly related to the verb. For example, smile is usually used without an object, but you can use it with the noun smile. For example, He smiled a patient smile is a literary alternative to saying He smiled patiently. The focus is on the type of smile rather than on the act of smiling.

Steve smiled his thin, cruel smile.
He appears to have lived the life of any other rich gentleman.
Alice laughed a scornful laugh.
I once dreamed a very nice dream about you.

Here is a list of verbs that can only be used with an object when the object is directly related to the verb:

dance (a dance)

die (a death)

dream (a dream)

laugh (a laugh)

live (a life)

sigh (a sigh)

smile (a smile)

A more common way of focusing on the noun phrase is to use a delexical verb such as give, take, or have, as in Mary gave him a really lovely smile. See paragraphs 3.32 to 3.45 for more information about the use of delexical verbs.

Transitive verbs: involving someone or something other than the subject

3.14 Many verbs describe events that must, in addition to the subject, involve someone or something else. Some of these verbs can only be used with a following object.

The extra profit justifies the investment.
He had committed a disgraceful action.
They are employing more staff.

This means that they are followed by a direct object.

She had friends.
Children seek independence.
The trial raised a number of questions.

different types of object

3.15 Many verbs that are only used with an object can take a large range of objects. For example, there are many things you can want: money, a rest, success, and so on.

She wanted some help.
I put my hand on the door.
She described her background.
I still support the government.
He had always liked Mr Phillips.
Japan has a population of about a hundred million.

Some transitive verbs have a restricted range of objects, because of their meaning. For example, the object of the verb kill must be something that is alive. The object of the verb waste must be something you can use, such as time, money, or food.

They killed huge elephants with tiny poisoned darts.
Why waste money on them?

3.16 Here is a list of verbs that are transitive:

achieve

address

admire

affect

afford

avoid

bear

believe

blame

build

buy

calm

carry

catch

claim

commit

complete

concern

consider

control

convince

correct

cover

create

cut

damage

defy

demand

describe

design

desire

destroy

discover

discuss

display

dread

enjoy

equal

exchange

expect

experience

express

favour

fear

fill

find

free

get

give

grant

guard

handle

hate

have

hear

heat

hire

hit

include

influence

introduce

issue

justify

keep

kill

know

lack

list

love

lower

maintain

make

mean

mention

name

need

own

plant

please

prefer

prevent

process

produce

pronounce

protect

provide

raise

reach

receive

recommend

record

release

remember

remove

rent

report

respect

reveal

risk

see

seek

sell

shock

specify

spot

support

take

tease

test

threaten

trust

upset

use

value

want

waste

wear

welcome

Note that do and have are also very often used as auxiliaries. See the Reference Section for this use.

Have got and has got are often used instead of the present tense of have when talking about possession. The forms of have behave like auxiliaries when used like this before got.

I’ve got an umbrella.
She’s got a degree.

Measure and weigh are sometimes considered to be transitive verbs when used to state measurements and weights. This use is explained in paragraph 2.252. Cost is used to state the cost of something, as in An adult ticket costs 90p.

human objects

3.17 When you are talking about something that affects a person rather than a thing, it is normal in English to say who that person is. Therefore, verbs such as anger, thank, and warn, which involve affecting people, usually have a human object.

I tried to comfort her.
Her sudden death had surprised everybody.
Blue suits you.
Money did not interest him very much.
Lebel briefed Caron on the events of the afternoon.

3.18 Here is a list of verbs that usually have a human object:

anger

brief

comfort

contact

frighten

interest

suit

surprise

tease

thank

trouble

warn

transitive verbs that need to be followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase

3.19 With some transitive verbs, you have to give additional information about what is going on by using an adverb or prepositional phrase after the object.

Some verbs typically have a prepositional phrase beginning with a particular preposition after their object.

The judge based his decision on constitutional rights.
He had subjected me to the pressure of financial ruin.
My parents still view me as a little boy.

Here is a list of verbs that always or usually have a particular preposition after their object:

regard as

view as

mistake for

swap for

dissociate from

prevent from

deprive of

remind of

rid of

rob of

accustom to

ascribe to

attribute to

compare to

condemn to

confine to

consign to

dedicate to

entitle to

liken to

owe to

return to

subject to

subordinate to

acquaint with

associate with

confront with

engrave with

pelt with

ply with

trust with

With the following verbs, there is a choice of preposition:

divide by

divide into

incorporate in

incorporate into

base on

base upon

lavish on

lavish upon

entrust to

entrust with

equate to

equate with

present to

present with

supply to

supply with

3.20 Other verbs are typically followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase, but not one containing a particular preposition. The adverb or phrase often relates to place.

He placed the baby on the woman’s lap.
I positioned my chair outside the room.
He never puts anything away.
He treated his labourers with kindness.

Here is a list of verbs that usually have some kind of adverb or prepositional phrase after their object:

bring

chuck

convey

cram

direct

drag

escort

fling

hoist

jab

jot

lay

lead

place

point

position

prop

put

rip

send

set

shove

smear

stick

store

throw

thrust

tie

treat

For more on adverbs and phrases that follow verbs, see Chapter 6.

transitive verbs of position and movement

3.21 Note that some verbs of movement and position are transitive, not intransitive; they are followed by nouns referring to places rather than by adverbs or prepositional phrases. This is because the verbs themselves show that you are talking about movement or position of a particular kind. For example, enter implies movement into a place and occupy implies position in a place.

He approached the house nervously.
It was dark by the time they reached their house.
A small ornamental pool occupied the centre of the room.
Everyone had left the room.

Here is a list of transitive verbs of movement:

approach

enter

leave

near

reach

round

Here is a list of transitive verbs of position:

cover

crowd

fill

inhabit

occupy

throng

Some verbs of movement can be followed either by a noun phrase or by a prepositional phrase. See paragraph 3.58.

USAGE NOTE

3.22 Note that even verbs that are almost always followed by an object can occasionally be used without an object. This is possible in very restricted contexts. For example, if you are contrasting two actions, it is not necessary to say what else is involved.

Money markets are the places where people with money buy and sell.
Some people build while others destroy.
We gave, they took.

If you use a list of different verbs for emphasis, you do not need to name the object.

They set out to be rude; to defy, threaten, or tease.

If you repeat a verb in order to contrast it with a similar action, or to emphasize it, the object can be omitted.

She had ceased to love as she had once loved.

3.23 Verbs that describe feelings and attitudes are sometimes used without an object, particularly in the to-infinitive form. This is because the object is assumed to be people in general. For example, please usually requires an object, but you can say He likes to please, meaning he likes to please people.

He likes to shock.
She was anxious to please.
He must be convinced if he is to convince.
I have a tendency to tease.

reporting verbs

3.24 There is a large group of verbs, such as say, suggest, and think, which are used to report what people say or think. They are called reporting verbs. They are followed by a that-clause which is called the reported clause.

She said that she would come.

The reported clause is often thought of as being an object, and so these verbs are usually said to be transitive verbs. In this book, reporting verbs are explained in Chapter 7.

Reporting verbs such as advise and persuade, which have an object that refers to the person being addressed, are explained in paragraphs 7.75 and 7.76.

Some reporting verbs can take as their object a noun such as question or story that refers to something that is said or written. These verbs are listed in paragraph 7.82. Some take an object that refers to an event or fact, and is therefore closely related to a that-clause. These are listed in paragraph 7.83.

Verbs such as believe and know that can be used as reporting verbs, but that are ordinary transitive verbs when used with another common meaning, are included in the lists of transitive verbs given above.

3.25 Most transitive verbs can be used in the passive. See paragraphs 9.9 to 9.21.

Reflexive verbs: verbs where the object refers back to the subject

BE CREATIVE

3.26 If you want to talk about a situation where the same person is involved as both the subject and the object of an action, you use a reflexive pronoun as the object of a clause. For example, it is common to blame someone else if something goes wrong, but you say I blame myself for what happened if you think that the mistake was your own fault.

Although a few verbs are typically used with reflexive pronouns, you can actually use a reflexive pronoun as the object of any transitive verb, when the meaning allows you to do so.

I blame myself for not paying attention.
She freed herself from my embrace.
After the meeting, he introduced himself to me.
Why not buy a book and teach yourself?
Don’t deceive yourself.
We must ask ourselves several questions.
Every country has the right to defend itself.

Reflexive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.111 to 1.118.

true reflexive verbs

3.27 Note that the verbs busy, content, and pride are true reflexive verbs: they must be used with a reflexive pronoun.

He had busied himself in the laboratory.
Many scholars contented themselves with writing textbooks.
He prides himself on his tidiness.

3.28 Another small group of verbs only take an object that refers to a person when the object is a reflexive pronoun. For example, you can express an opinion and you can express yourself (meaning that you can put ideas into words), but you cannot express a person.

Professor Baxendale expressed himself very forcibly.
She enjoyed herself enormously.
He applied himself to learning how Parliament worked.

Here is a list of verbs that take a reflexive pronoun as their object when you refer to a person:

apply

compose

distance

enjoy

excel

exert

express

strain

reflexive pronouns used for emphasis

3.29 Some verbs that normally do not have objects, because they involve only the performer of the action, can have a reflexive pronoun as their object if you want to emphasize that the subject is doing something that affects himself or herself. You can therefore say Bill washed himself rather than Bill washed.

I always wash five times a day.
Children were encouraged to wash themselves.
I stood in the kitchen while he shaved.
He prefers to shave himself before breakfast.
Ashton had behaved abominably.
He is old enough to behave himself.
Successful companies know how to adapt to change.
You’ve got to be willing to adapt yourself.

Here is a list of verbs that have senses in which you can use a reflexive pronoun for emphasis:

acclimatize

adapt

behave

commit

dress

hide

move

readjust

shave

undress

wash

BE CAREFUL

3.30 Note that reflexive pronouns are not used as much in English as in some other languages when talking about actions that you do to yourself. As mentioned above, you would usually say I washed rather than I washed myself in English. Sometimes a noun with a possessive is used instead. For example, you would say I combed my hair rather than I combed myself.

3.31 Note that reflexive verbs are not used in the passive.

Delexical verbs: verbs with little meaning

3.32 There are some very common verbs that are used with nouns as their object to show simply that someone performs an action, not that someone affects or creates something. These verbs have very little meaning when they are used in this way.

For example, had in She had a shower has very little meaning in itself. Most of the meaning of the sentence is carried by the noun shower.

We were having a joke.
Roger gave a grin of sheer delight.
He took a step towards Jack.

verbs that are often delexical

3.33 This section focuses on the very common verbs that are used in this transitive structure. They are called delexical verbs.

Here is a list of verbs that are used as delexical verbs. The first four are very commonly used in this way.

give

have

make

take

hold

keep

set

Note that have got is not used as a delexical verb.

Structures containing delexical verbs are very common in English. Although the total number of delexical verbs is small, it includes some of the most common words in the language.

3.34 In many cases, there is a verb that has a similar meaning to the meaning of the delexical verb + noun. For example, the verb look means almost the same as have a look. When look is a verb, as in I looked round the room, you are focusing on the action of looking. When you use look as a noun in a delexical structure, you are naming an event, something that is complete. This structure often seems to be preferred. Note that the verb corresponding to the delexical structure is often intransitive.

She made a signal.
She signalled for a taxi.
A couple were having a drink at a table by the window.
A few students were drinking at the bar.
She gave an amused laugh.
They both laughed.
He gave a vague reply.
They replied to his letter.

There are also some verbs that are transitive.

Fans tried to get a glimpse of the singer.
I glimpsed a bright flash of gold on the left.
He gave a little sniff.
She sniffed the air.
Comis took a photograph of her.
They photographed the pigeons in Trafalgar Square.

with singular noun

3.35 The noun that is the object of the delexical verb is often in the singular and is usually preceded by a or an.

She made a remark about the weather.
She gave a cry when I came in.
I might take a stroll.

There are some countable nouns that are almost always used in the singular after a delexical verb. Here is a list of these nouns:

cry

feel

grouse

grumble

need

read

smell

taste

try

Note that these words are more commonly used as verbs in the language as a whole.

with plural noun

3.36 You can also use a delexical verb followed by a plural noun.

She took little sips of the cold drink.
He took photographs of Vita in her summer house.
The newspaper made unpleasant remarks about his wife.

with uncountable noun

3.37 It is also occasionally possible to follow a delexical verb with an uncountable noun.

We have made progress in both science and art.
Cal took charge of this side of their education.

talking about a brief event

3.38 One difference in meaning between using a structure containing a delexical verb and a verb with a similar meaning is that the delexical structure can give the impression that the event you are describing is brief. For example, She gave a scream suggests that there was only one quick scream, whereas She screamed does not suggest that the event was brief.

Mr. Sutton gave a shout of triumph.
Zoe gave a sigh of relief.
He gave a laugh.

using adjectives

3.39 Another reason for choosing a delexical structure is that you can add further details about the event by using adjectives in front of the noun, rather than by using adverbs. It is more natural, for example, to say He gave a quick furtive glance round the room than to say He glanced quickly and furtively round the room.

He gave a long lecture about Roosevelt.
She had a good cry.
He was forced to make a humiliating apology.
These legends hold a romantic fascination for many Japanese.

nouns with no equivalent verb

3.40 There are some nouns used in delexical structures that do not correspond in form to a verb that has a similar meaning to the delexical structure. Sometimes there is such a verb, but the form is slightly different.

Work experience allows students to make more effective career decisions.
I decided I wouldn’t resign after all.
He made the shortest speech I’ve ever heard.
lain spoke candidly about the crash.

In other cases, there is no corresponding verb with a similar meaning at all and so there is no other structure that can be used.

He had been out all day taking pictures of the fighting.
That is a very foolish attitude to take.
She made a number of relevant points.
Try not to make so much noise.

nouns used with have

3.41 In most cases, only one delexical verb is used with any particular noun.

The following examples show nouns that are used after have.

They have a desperate need to communicate.
They had a fundamental belief in their own superiority.
She had a good cry.
Let’s not have a quarrel.
We should have a talk.

Here is a list of nouns that are used after have:

argument

belief

chat

cry

dance

disagreement

fall

fight

grouse

grumble

need

quarrel

respect

sleep

talk

nouns used with take

3.42 The following examples show nouns that are used after take.

He takes no interest in his children.
…kids taking turns to use a playground slide.
He was taking no chances.
She was prepared to take great risks.
Davis took the lead in blaming the pilots.
The Government fought against suggestions that it should take full blame for the affair.

Here is a list of nouns that are used after take. The first set of nouns are countable nouns; the second set of nouns are uncountable nouns or always either singular or plural:

attitude

chance

decision

interest

photo

photograph

picture

risk

turn

blame

care

charge

consequences

form

lead

offence

office

power

responsibility

shape

time

trouble

nouns used with give

3.43 Many nouns can be used after give.

Some of these nouns refer to noises that people make, or expressions they make with their face. Using give with one of these nouns often suggests that the action is involuntary or that it is not necessarily directed at other people. For example, She gave a scream suggests that she could not help screaming.

The young cashier gave a patient sigh.
Roger gave a grin of sheer delight.
He gave a shrill gasp of shock.
Both of them gave an involuntary little giggle.
He gave a soft chuckle.

Here is a list of nouns that refer to noises people make, or expressions they make with their face:

chuckle

cry

gasp

giggle

grin

groan

laugh

scowl

scream

shout

shriek

sigh

smile

sniff

snigger

whistle

yell

Another group of nouns are often preceded by an indirect object (that is, an object that refers to the person or thing that received the action) because they describe activities that involve someone else, apart from the subject.

They gave us a wonderfully warm welcome.
Elaine gave him a hug.
He gave her hand a squeeze.
He gave him a good kick.
She gave him a long kiss.

Here is a list of nouns that can be preceded by an indirect object:

clue

glance

hint

hug

kick

kiss

look

punch

push

ring

shove

slap

squeeze

welcome

A third group of nouns refer to actions involving something being said.

The poetry professor is required to give a lecture every term.
Lord Young will be giving a first-hand account of the economic difficulties the Russians are struggling to overcome.
Senator Brown has given warning that conflict over the plans could lead to a constitutional crisis.

Here is a list of nouns that refer to actions involving something being said:

account

advice

answer

example

information

interview

lecture

news

reason

report

speech

summary

talk

thought

warning

nouns used with make

3.44 Many nouns can be used after make.

The delexical structures using a lot of these nouns are closely related to reporting structures, which are explained in Chapter 7. There is usually a related verb that can be used followed by a reported clause.

She made a remark about the weather.
Allen remarked that at times he thought he was back in America.
Now and then she makes a comment on something.
He commented that he was only doing his job.
I haven’t made a full confession, sir.
Fox confessed that he had stolen the money.
The cricketers made a public protest against apartheid.
She protested that his comments were sexist.
I made a secret signal to him.
The Bank of England signalled that there would be no change in interest rates.
You made the right decision.
One candidate resigned, deciding that banking was not for her.

Here is a list of nouns that are used after make and have a related reporting verb:

arrangement

claim

comment

confession

decision

promise

protest

remark

signal

suggestion

Other nouns used with make express actions involving something being said, or describe change, results, effort, and so on.

I’ll make some enquiries for you.
They agreed to make a few minor changes.
They made an emotional appeal for their daughter’s safe return.
He made an attempt to calm down.
He has made a significant contribution to the success of the business.

Here is a list of other nouns that are used after make:

appeal

attempt

change

charge

contribution

effort

enquiry

impression

noise

point

progress

recovery

sound

speech

start

success

Note that, unlike the other nouns in this list, progress is uncountable.

nouns used with have and take

3.45 There are some nouns that can be used after either have or take. In general have is more common with these nouns in British English and take is more common in American English. There is sometimes a slight difference in emphasis: using have puts more emphasis on the experience, and using take puts more emphasis on the performer of the action.

One group of these nouns refer to physical activities.

I’d rather have a swim.
Have a drink.
She decided to take a stroll along the beach.
I took a bath, my second that day.

Here is a list of nouns that refer to physical activities:

bath

break

drink

holiday

jog

paddle

rest

run

shower

stroll

swim

vacation (American)

walk

Another group refer to actions that involve using our senses.

She should let a doctor have a look at you.
Even Sally had a little sip of wine.
A Harvard scientist was once allowed in to have a peep.
Mark took a bite of meat.

Here is a list of nouns that refer to such actions:

bite

feel

look

peep

sip

smell

sniff

taste

Verbs that can be used both with and without an object

3.46 There are several reasons why you can use verbs both with and without an object.

different meanings

3.47 One important reason for using verbs both with and without an object is that many verbs have more than one common meaning. For example, the verb run is used without an object when it is used in the sense to move quickly. But run has an object when it is used in the sense to manage or operate.

She runs in order to keep fit.
She runs a hotel.
She reflected for a moment and then decided to back out.
The figures reflected the company’s attempts to increase its profile.
I can manage perfectly well on my own.
I can no longer manage my life.
She moved rather gracefully.
The whole incident had moved her profoundly.

3.48 Here is a list of verbs that can be used both with and without an object, depending on which meaning you are using:

add

aim

beat

blow

call

change

cheat

count

draw

dress

drive

escape

exercise

fit

fly

hang

head

hold

hurt

leak

lose

manage

meet

miss

move

pass

play

point

press

propose

reflect

run

shoot

show

sink

spread

stand

stretch

strike

study

tend

touch

turn

win

verbs that do not always need an object

3.49 Many verbs in English can be used with or without an object, with the same basic meaning. The object is not needed when it is obvious what type of thing you are talking about.

For example, you could say either She eats food slowly or She eats slowly. It is obvious in this context that what she eats is food, and so you only mention food if you want to emphasize the fact (which is unlikely), or if you want to say what kind of food she eats.

With verbs like these, you normally use an object only when you want to be specific or when you want to contrast what happened on one specific occasion with what happens normally. For example, you would say I’ve been studying history, as opposed to I’ve been studying, only if you want or need to mention the subject specifically, or if you normally study something else.

…a healthy person who eats sensibly.
Twice a week he eats an apple for lunch.
He raised his own glass and drank.
He drank a good deal of coffee.
He had won, and she had helped.
She could help him to escape.
I cooked for about eight directors.
She had never cooked dinner for anyone.
I washed and ironed for them.
She ironed my shirt.
Rudolph waved and went into the house.
She smiled and waved her hand.
She sat and typed.
She typed a letter to the paper in question.

You need to give the object when it is different from the one that people would normally associate with the verb. For example, to wave is usually interpreted as meaning to wave your hand, so if something else is being waved, you have to mention it.

He waved a piece of paper in his left hand.
Charlie washed Susan’s feet.

You also mention the object when you want to say something specific about it.

He washed his summer clothes and put them away.
Bond waved a cheerful hand.
I could save quite a lot of money.

3.50 Here is a list of verbs that can be used without an object when it is obvious what sort of thing is involved:

borrow

change

clean

cook

draw

drink

drive

dust

eat

film

help

iron

learn

lend

marry

paint

park

point

read

ride

save

sing

smoke

spend

steal

study

type

wash

wave

write

object already mentioned

3.51 There is another group of verbs that usually have an object but that can be used without an object with the same meaning. These are verbs where the object is obvious because it has already been mentioned. For example, if you have already mentioned the place where something happened, you can say I left, without naming the place again.

At last she thanked them and left.
He turned away and walked quickly up the passage. I locked the door and followed.
I was in the middle of a quiet meal when the tanks attacked.
She did not look round when he entered.
The sentry fired at the doctor and fortunately missed.
Only two or three hundred men belonged to the Union before the war, now thousands joined.

3.52 Here is a list of verbs that can be used without an object when the object has already been mentioned:

aim

answer

approach

ask

attack

begin

bite

blow

board

call

check

choose

consider

direct

dry

enter

explain

fit

forget

gain

guess

improve

join

judge

know

lead

leave

lose

mind

miss

move

notice

observe

offer

order

pass

phone

play

produce

pull

push

remember

ring

rule

serve

sign

strike

telephone

understand

watch

win

3.53 If you think that the object may not be obvious from what has been said or if you particularly want to draw attention to it, you mention it.

All I know is that Michael and I never left the house.
Miss Lindley followed Rose into the shop.
They were unaware they had attacked a British warship.
A man entered the shop and demanded money.
She threw the first dart and missed the board altogether.
I had joined an athletic club in Chicago.

speaker’s decisions

3.54 There are not many verbs that always have an object or never have an object. The decision about whether or not to mention an object is left to the users. If they think that the people reading or listening to them will have no difficulty in working out what person or thing is affected by the action, then they can leave out the object. If they think that this will not be clear, they will use an object in order to prevent misunderstanding. The main reasons for omitting the object are that it is obvious from the meaning of the verb itself, or that it is obvious from what has already been said.

Verbs that can take an object or a prepositional phrase

3.55 There is a small group of verbs that can be followed by either an object or a prepositional phrase. The verb fight is one of these verbs, so that, for example, you can say He fought the enemy or He fought against the enemy.

The Polish Army fought the Germans for nearly five weeks.
He was fighting against history.
The New Zealand rugby team played South Africa’s Springboks.
In his youth, Thomas played against Glamorgan.

3.56 There is usually little difference in meaning between using the verb on its own and following it with a preposition. For example, there is very little difference in meaning between brush and brush against, gnaw and gnaw at, and hiss and hiss at in the following examples.

Her arm brushed my cheek.
Something brushed against the back of the shelter.
Rabbits often gnaw the woodwork of their cages.
Insects had been gnawing at the wood.
They hissed the Mayor at the ceremony.
Frederica hissed at him.

3.57 Here is a list of verbs that can be used with an object or a prepositional phrase, with little difference in meaning:

boo (at)

brush (against)

check (on)

distinguish (between)

enter (for)

fight (against)

fight (with)

gain (in)

gnaw (at)

hiss (at)

infiltrate (into)

jeer (at)

juggle (with)

mock (at)

mourn (for)

nibble (at)

play (against)

rule (over)

sip (at)

sniff (at)

tug (at)

twiddle (with)

verbs of movement

3.58 Many of the verbs that can take an object or a prepositional phrase are verbs, such as wander and cross, that describe physical movement. The preposition is one that indicates place, and so allows you to emphasize the physical position of the subject in relation to the object.

He wandered the halls of the Art Institute.
He wandered through the streets of New York.
I crossed the Mississippi.
The car had crossed over the river to Long Island.
We climbed the mountain.
I climbed up the tree.

Here is a list of verbs that describe movement, and examples of the prepositions that can follow them:

chase (after)

climb (up)

cross (over)

jump (over)

leap (over)

reach (across)

roam (over)

roam (through)

run (across)

skirt (round)

walk (through)

wander (through)

Changing your focus by changing the subject: I opened the door, The door opened

3.59 Some verbs allow you to describe an action from the point of view of the performer of the action or from the point of view of something that is affected by the action. This means that the same verb can be used with an object, or without an object, and without the original performer being mentioned.

In the first example below, the door is the object of the verb opened, but in the second example the door is the subject of opened and there is no mention of who opened the door.

I opened the door and peered into the room.
Suddenly the door opened.
An explosion shook the rooms.
The whole room shook.

Note that the object of the transitive verb, which is the subject of the intransitive verb, usually refers to a thing, not a person.

Verbs that can have the same thing as their object, when transitive, or their subject, when intransitive, are called ergative verbs. There are several hundred ergative verbs in regular use in current English.

changes

3.60 Many ergative verbs describe events that involve a change from one state to another.

He was slowing his pace.
She was aware that the aircraft’s taxiing pace had slowed.
I shattered the glass.
Wine bottles had shattered all over the pavement.
They have closed the town’s only pub.
The street markets have closed.
The firm has changed its name.
Over the next few months their work pattern changed.
The driver stopped the car.
A big car stopped.

3.61 Here is a list of ergative verbs that describe events involving a change of some kind:

age

begin

bend

bleach

break

burn

burst

change

continue

crack

darken

decrease

diminish

disperse

double

drown

dry

empty

end

fade

finish

grow

improve

increase

open

quicken

rot

shatter

shrink

shut

slow

split

spread

start

stick

stop

stretch

tear

thicken

widen

worsen

food, movement, vehicles

3.62 There are many other ergative verbs that relate specifically to certain areas of meaning. For example, some relate to food and cooking, others describe physical movement, and others involve a vehicle as the object of the transitive verb or the subject of the intransitive verb.

I’ve boiled an egg.
The porridge is boiling.
I’m cooking spaghetti.
The rice is cooking.
The birds turned their heads sharply at the sound.
Vorster’s head turned.
She rested her head on his shoulder.
Her head rested on the edge of the table.
She had crashed the car twice.
Pollock’s car crashed into a clump of trees.

3.63 Here is a list of verbs relating to food, physical movement, and vehicles:

bake

boil

cook

defrost

fry

melt

roast

simmer

thicken

balance

drop

move

rest

rock

shake

spin

stand

steady

swing

turn

back

crash

drive

fly

park

reverse

run

sail

restrictions on ergative subjects

3.64 Note that some verbs are used ergatively with one or two nouns only. For example, you can say He fired a gun or The gun fired. You can also say He fired a bullet, but you would not normally say The bullet fired.

I rang the bell.
The bell rang.
A car was sounding its horn.
A horn sounded in the night.
He had caught his sleeve on a splinter of wood.
The hat caught on a bolt and tore.

3.65 Here is a list of verbs that can be used ergatively with the noun, or type of noun, that is given:

catch (an article of clothing)

fire (a gun, rifle, pistol)

play (music)

ring (a bell, the alarm)

show (an emotion such as fear, anger)

sound (a horn, the alarm)

ergative verbs that need extra information

3.66 There are a few ergative verbs that usually have an adverb or some other phrase or clause when they are used intransitively. This is because you choose this structure when you want to emphasize how something behaves when affected in some way, and so the person who does the action is not important.

I like the new Range Rover. It handles beautifully.
Wool washes well if you treat it carefully.

Here is a list of ergative verbs that are usually followed by some extra information when they are used intransitively:

clean

freeze

handle

mark

polish

sell

stain

wash

comparison of passive and ergative use

3.67 Note that ergative verbs perform a similar function to the passive because they allow you to avoid mentioning who or what does the action. For example, you could say Jane froze a lot of peas from the garden. If you were not interested in who froze them but in what she froze, you could say A lot of peas were frozen, using the passive. If you were interested in how they froze, you could say, The peas from the garden froze really well, making use of the fact that the verb is ergative.

For information about the passive, see 9.8 to 9.24.

Verbs that involve people affecting each other with the same action: John and Mary argued

3.68 Some verbs can describe processes that involve two people or two groups of people doing the same thing to each other. For example, John and Mary argued means that John argued with Mary and Mary argued with John.

The pair of you have argued about that for years.
He came out and we hugged.
They competed furiously.

These verbs are called reciprocal verbs.

reciprocal verbs with plural subject

3.69 One of the structures in which you use reciprocal verbs is where the two groups are put together in a plural subject and the verb is then used without an object.

Their faces touched.
Their children are always fighting.
They kissed.

emphasizing equal involvement

3.70 When you want to emphasize that both participants are equally involved in the action, you put each other or one another after the verb.

We embraced each other.
They kissed each other in greeting.
They fought each other desperately for it.
The two boys started hitting one another.

Here is a list of reciprocal verbs that are used transitively with the pronouns each other and one another:

consult

cuddle

embrace

engage

fight

hug

kiss

marry

match

meet

touch

With some verbs you need to use a preposition, usually with, in front of each other or one another.

You’ve got to be able to communicate with each other.
Third World countries are competing with each other for a restricted market.
The two actors began to engage with one another.

Here is a list of reciprocal verbs that must be followed by with before the pronouns each other and one another:

agree

alternate

argue

balance

clash

coincide

collide

combine

communicate

conflict

consult

contend

contrast

converse

co-operate

disagree

engage

integrate

mate

merge

mix

quarrel

struggle

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with a preposition other than with:

compete (against)

compete (with)

correspond (to)

correspond (with)

fight (against)

fight (with)

part (from)

relate (to)

separate (from)

talk (to)

talk (with)

Note that consult, engage, and fight can be used either with an object or with a preposition.

showing unequal involvement

3.71 In the examples given above, the speaker or writer believes that both people or groups are equally involved in the event, because both are the subject. However, the user may want to focus on one person more than the other. In this case, a noun that refers to that person is put in subject position.

If the verb can be used with an object, a noun referring to the other participant is used as the object of the verb.

He embraced her.
She married a young engineer.
You could meet me at a restaurant.
He is responsible for killing many people.

If the verb needs a preposition after it, the other noun is used as the object of the preposition.

Our return coincided with the arrival of bad weather.
Youths clashed with police in Belfast.
The distribution of aid corresponds to need.

3.72 People sometimes make one person or group the subject when the event is a violent or unpleasant one, in order to make them appear aggressive or responsible for the violence. For example, the headline Police clash with youths might suggest that the police were responsible for the clash, even though the youths also clashed with the police.

Paul collided with a large man in a sweat-stained shirt.
The role of worker conflicts with the role of parent.
She liked him even when she was quarrelling with him.

Verbs that can have two objects: give someone something

3.73 Sometimes you may want to talk about an event that involves someone in addition to the people or things that are the subject and object of the clause. This third participant is someone who benefits from the action or receives something as a result. They become the indirect object of the clause. The direct object, as usual, is the person or thing that something is done to. For example, in I gave John a book, John is the indirect object and the bookis the direct object.

The indirect object is put immediately after the verb, in front of the direct object.

Dad gave me a car.
Can you pass me the sugar please?
She brought me a boiled egg and toast.
He had lent Tim the money.
A man promised him a job.
The distraction provided us a chance to relax. (Am)

indirect objects in phrases that begin with a preposition

3.74 Instead of putting the indirect object in front of the direct object, it is possible to put it in a phrase beginning with to or for that comes after the direct object.

He handed his room key to the receptionist.
Ralph passed a message to Jack.
He gave it to me.

This structure is used particularly in cases where you want to focus on the indirect object. You can use it, for example, when the indirect object is significantly longer than the direct object.

He had taught English to all the youth of Ceylon and India.
He copied the e-mail to every single one of his staff.

pronouns as objects

3.75 It is normal to use this prepositional structure when the direct object is a pronoun such as it or them.

I took the bottle and offered it to Oakley.
Woodward finished the second page and passed it to the editor.
It was the only pound he had and he gave it to the little boy.
God has sent you to me.

Note that in informal spoken English, some people put the indirect object in front of the direct object when both objects are pronouns. For example, some people say He gave me it rather than He gave it to me. Both pronouns are unstressed and both refer to information that is already known, and so it does not matter what order they come in.

indirect objects with to

3.76 If you want to put the indirect object in a phrase that begins with a preposition, you use the preposition to with some verbs, especially ones where the direct object is something that is transferred from one person to another.

Mr Schell wrote a letter the other day to the New York Times.
I had lent my apartment to a friend for the weekend.
I took out the black box and handed it to her.

Here is a list of verbs that can have an indirect object introduced by to:

accord

advance

award

bring

deal

feed

forward

give

grant

hand

lease

leave

lend

loan

mail

offer

owe

pass

pay

play

post

quote

read

rent

repay

sell

send

serve

show

sing

take

teach

tell

write

indirect objects with for

3.77 If the action you are describing involves one person doing something that will benefit another person, you can use the preposition for to introduce the indirect object.

He left a note for her on the table.
He poured more champagne for the three of them.
She brought presents for the children.

Here is a list of verbs that can have an indirect object introduced by for:

book

bring

build

buy

cash

cook

cut

design

fetch

find

fix

get

guarantee

keep

leave

make

mix

order

paint

pick

play

pour

prepare

reserve

save

secure

set

sing

spare

take

win

write

USAGE NOTE

3.78 Note that the verbs bring, leave, play, sing, take, and write are in both of the lists (3.76 and 3.77). That is because there are a few verbs that can take either to or for in front of the indirect object, depending on the meaning you want to express. For example, Karen wrote a letter to her boyfriend means that the letter was addressed to her boyfriend and was for him to read. Karen wrote a letter for her boyfriend means that her boyfriend wanted to send someone else a letter and Karen was the person who actually wrote it.

USAGE NOTE

3.79 There are some verbs that take two objects where the indirect object almost always comes in front of the direct object rather than being introduced by to or for. For example, you say He begrudged his daughter the bread she ate and She allowed her son only two pounds a week. It would be very unusual to say She allowed two pounds a week to her son.

Here is a list of verbs that do not usually have their indirect object introduced by to or for:

allow

ask

begrudge

bet

cause

charge

cost

deny

draw

envy

forgive

grudge

promise

refuse

Note that wish can be used as this sort of verb when its direct object is a word or phrase like luck, good luck, or happy birthday.

3.80 When you use a passive form of a verb with two objects, either the direct object or the indirect object can become the subject. See 9.20 for full information.

USAGE NOTE

3.81 When the subject and the indirect object refer to the same person, you can use a reflexive pronoun as the indirect object.

I’m going to buy myself some new clothes.
He had got himself a car.
He cooked himself an omelette.

Reflexive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.111 to 1.118.

verbs that usually have both a direct object and an indirect object

3.82 Most of the verbs listed above as verbs that take two objects can be used with the same meaning with just a direct object.

He left a note.
She fetched a jug from the kitchen.

However, the following verbs always or usually have both a direct object and an indirect object:

accord

advance

allow

deny

give

hand

lend

loan

show

tell

A few verbs can be used with the person who benefits from the action, or receives something, as the direct object.

I fed the baby when she woke.
I forgive you.

Here is a list of these verbs:

ask

envy

feed

forgive

pay

teach

Phrasal verbs: I sat down, She woke me up

3.83 There is a special group of verbs that consist of two or three words. These are called phrasal verbs. They consist of

a verb followed by an adverb:

He sat down.
The noise gradually died away.
The cold weather set in.

a verb followed by a preposition (sometimes called a prepositional verb):

She looked after her invalid mother.
She sailed through her exams.
She fell down the steps and broke her ankle.

or a verb followed by an adverb and a preposition:

You may come up against unexpected difficulties.
I look forward to reading it.
Fame has crept up on her almost by accident.

By combining a verb and an adverb or preposition in this way, you can extend the usual meaning of the verb or create a new meaning, different from any that the verb has on its own. You cannot, therefore, always guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the usual meanings of the verb and the adverb or preposition. For example, if someone says I give up they do not give anything to anyone, nor is there any upward movement involved.

In the case of a few phrasal verbs, the first part is not found independently as a verb at all. For example, there are phrasal verbs sum up, tamper with, and zero in on, but no verbs sum, tamper, or zero.

Note that phrasal verbs are never written as a single word or with a hyphen.

3.84 Most phrasal verbs consist of two words. These are explained below in paragraphs 3.85 to 3.110. Three-word phrasal verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.111 to 3.113.

intransitive phrasal verbs with adverbs

3.85 Some phrasal verbs are used without an object. These phrasal verbs are generally verb plus adverb combinations.

Rosamund went away for a few days.
The boys were fooling around.
She must have dozed off.

3.86 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a verb and an adverb with no object:

back away

back down

back off

balance out

barge in

bear up

boil over

bounce back

bow down

bow out

branch out

break away

break out

butt in

camp out

cast about

catch on

change down

change up

check up

chip in

climb down

close in

cloud over

club together

come about

come along

come apart

come away

come back

come down

come forward

come in

come on

come out

come round

come to

come up

cool off

creep in

crop up

cry off

cuddle up

curl up

cut in

die away

die down

die out

dine out

double back

doze off

drag on

drop back

drop by

drop out

ease up

ebb away

end up

fade away

fade out

fall apart

fall away

fall back

fall behind

fall out

fall over

fall through

fight back

fizzle out

flare up

fool around

forge ahead

get about

get ahead

get along

get by

get up

give in

glaze over

go ahead

go along

go around

go away

go back

go down

go on

go out

go under

go up

grow up

hang back

hang together

hit out

hold on

land up

lash out

let up

lie back

lie down

live in

look ahead

look back

look in

loom up

make off

meet up

melt away

mount up

move off

move over

nod off

opt out

own up

pass away

pay up

pine away

play around

pop up

press ahead

press on

push ahead

push on

rear up

ride up

ring off

rise up

roll about

roll in

roll over

rot away

run away

run out

rush in

seize up

sell up

set in

settle down

settle in

settle up

shop around

simmer down

sink in

sit around

sit back

sit down

slip up

speak up

splash out

spring up

stand back

stand down

stand in

stand out

start out

stay in

stay on

stay up

steam up

step aside

step back

step down

step in

stick around

stock up

stop by

stop off

stop over

tag along

tail away

tail off

taper off

tick over

touch down

tune in

wade in

wait about

wait up

walk out

waste away

watch out

wear off

weigh in

intransitive phrasal verbs with prepositions: look after, call on

3.87 Other phrasal verbs used in intransitive clauses are verb plus preposition combinations. These are sometimes called prepositional verbs.

Ski trips now account for nearly half of all school visits.
I’m just asking for information.
…the arguments that stem from gossip.

Note that the nouns at the end of the above examples (nearly half of all school visits, information, and gossip) are objects of the prepositions and not direct objects of the verbs.

3.88 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a verb with no object and a preposition:

abide by

account for

allow for

answer for

ask after

ask for

bank on

bargain for

break into

break with

brood on

bump into

burst into

call for

call on

care for

come across

come between

come by

come for

come from

come into

come under

come upon

count on

cut across

dawn on

deal with

dispose of

draw on

drink to

dwell on

eat into

embark on

enter into

expand on

fall for

fall into

fall on

feel for

flick through

frown upon

get at

get into

get over

go about

go against

go for

grow on

hang onto

head for

hit on

hold with

jump at

keep to

laugh at

launch into

lay into

leap at

level with

lie behind

live for

live off

live with

look after

look into

look to

make for

meet with

part with

pick at

pick on

pitch into

plan for

plan on

play at

play on

poke at

pore over

provide for

puzzle over

rattle through

reason with

reckon on

reckon with

reckon without

rise above

romp through

run across

run into

run to

sail through

see to

seize on

set about

settle for

settle on

skate over

smile on

stand for

stem from

stick at

stick by

stumble across

stumble on

take after

take against

tamper with

tangle with

trifle with

tumble to

wade through

wait on

walk into

watch for

worry at

preposition or adverb: We looked around the old town, Would you like to look around?

3.89 In the case of some intransitive phrasal verbs, the second word (across, around, down, etc) is a preposition if the second thing involved needs to be mentioned, or can be an adverb if the second thing involved is clear from the context.

I could hang around your office.
We’ll have to hang around for a while.
They all crowded around the table.
Everyone crowded around to see him jump into the water.

3.90 Here is a list of intransitive phrasal verbs whose second word is a preposition if the other thing involved needs to be mentioned, or an adverb if it does not:

ask around

bend over

break through

bustle about

come across

come after

come along

come by

come down

come in

come off

come on

come over

come through

come up

cross over

crowd around

do without

fall behind

fall down

fall off

gather around

get in

get off

get on

get round

go about

go along

go down

go in

go round

go through

go up

go without

hang around

join in

knock about

lag behind

lean over

lie about

look round

look through

lounge about

move about

pass by

pass over

push by

push past

push through

rally round

run around

run down

run up

scrape through

see round

shine through

show through

sit around

spill over

stand around

stop by

trip over

transitive phrasal verbs: look something up, let someone down

3.91 Some phrasal verbs are nearly always used with an object.

We put our drinks down on the bar.
I finished my meal off as quickly as I could.
She read the poem out quietly.

3.92 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and an adverb:

add on

beat up

blot out

board up

bring about

bring along

bring back

bring down

bring forward

bring in

bring off

bring out

bring round

bring up

buy out

buy up

call off

call up

carry off

carry out

cast aside

catch out

chase up

chat up

clean out

conjure up

count out

cross off

cross out

cut back

cut down

cut off

cut up

deal out

dig up

do up

drag in

drag out

drag up

dream up

drink in

drive out

drum up

eat away

eat up

explain away

fight off

fill in

fill up

filter out

find out

fix up

follow up

frighten away

gather up

give away

give back

give off

hammer out

hand down

hand in

hand on

hand out

hand over

hand round

have on

hire out

hold down

hold up

hunt down

hush up

keep back

kick out

knock down

knock out

knock over

lap up

lay down

lay on

lay out

leave behind

leave out

let down

let in

let off

let out

lift up

live down

melt down

mess up

mix up

nail down

note down

order about

pack off

pass down

pass over

pass round

patch up

pay back

pay out

phase in

phase out

pick off

pick out

piece together

pin down

pin up

play back

play down

plug in

point out

print out

pull apart

pull down

push about

push around

push over

put about

put across

put around

put away

put down

put forward

put off

put on

put out

put through

put together

put up

read out

reason out

reel off

rinse out

rip off

rip up

rope in

rope off

rub in

rub out

rule out

rush through

scale down

screen off

seal off

see off

seek out

sell off

send up

set apart

set aside

set back

set down

shake off

shake up

shoot down

shrug off

shut away

shut in

shut off

shut out

size up

smooth over

snap up

soak up

sort out

sound out

spell out

spin out

stamp out

step up

stick down

summon up

switch on

take apart

take away

take back

take down

take in

take on

take up

talk over

talk round

tear apart

tear down

tear up

tell apart

tell off

think over

think through

think up

thrash out

throw away

throw off

throw on

throw out

tidy away

tie down

tie up

tip off

tip up

tire out

tone down

top up

track down

trade in

try on

try out

turn down

turn on

use up

warn off

wash away

weed out

weigh out

weigh up

whip up

win back

win over

wipe away

wipe out

wipe up

Phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and a preposition are explained in paragraphs 3.107 to 3.110.

phrasal verbs used both with and without an object: The plane took off, She took off her coat

3.93 A large group of phrasal verbs can be used both with and without an object.

Often this is because a phrasal verb has more than one meaning. For example, break in does not have an object when it is used in the sense of get into a place by force. But break in does take an object when it is used in the sense of get someone used to a new situation.

If the door is locked, I will try to break in.
He believes in breaking in his staff gradually.
A plane took off.
Gretchen took off her coat.
The engine cut out.
She cut out some coloured photographs from a magazine.

3.94 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that can be used both with and without an object, depending on which meaning is being used:

add up

bail out

black out

break in

call in

carry on

clear out

cut out

draw on

draw out

draw up

dress up

drop off

drop round

fight back

finish up

get down

get in

get out

get together

give up

hang out

hold off

hold out

join up

keep away

keep down

keep in

keep off

keep on

keep out

keep up

kick off

knock about

knock off

lay off

leave off

look out

look up

make out

make up

mess about

miss out

pass off

pass on

pay off

pick up

pull in

put in

roll up

run down

run off

run over

set forth

set off

set out

show off

show up

split up

stick out

stick up

stow away

strike out

string along

sum up

switch off

take off

tear off

throw up

tuck in

turn away

turn back

turn in

turn out

turn round

turn up

wind down

wind up

work out

wrap up

3.95 There are a few phrasal verbs that have only one meaning, but that can be used either with or without an object. It is possible to use them without an object because the object is either obvious or can be guessed in a particular context.

It won’t take me a moment to clear away.
I’ll help you clear away the dishes.

3.96 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that have only one meaning but that can be used with or without an object:

answer back

breathe in

breathe out

call back

clear away

clear up

cover up

drink up

help out

open up

take over

tidy away

wash up

ergative phrasal verbs

3.97 Just as with ordinary verbs, some phrasal verbs are ergative verbs; that is, you can use the object of the transitive verb as the subject of the intransitive verb.

The guerrillas blew up the restaurant.
The gasworks blew up.
I won’t wake him up just yet.
He woke up in the middle of the night.

See paragraphs 3.59 to 3.67 for information about ergative verbs.

3.98 Here is a list of ergative phrasal verbs:

back up

block up

blow up

book in

break off

break up

buck up

build up

burn up

check in

check out

cheer up

close down

dry up

get off

heat up

hurry up

line up

move on

open up

peel off

pull through

rub off

shut up

slow down

spread out

start off

thaw out

wake up

warm up

wear down

wear out

3.99 In the case of some ergative phrasal verbs, the second word can be a preposition if the other thing involved needs to be mentioned, or can be an adverb if the other thing involved is clear from the context.

…leaves that had been blown off the trees.
My hat blew off.

3.100 Here is a list of ergative phrasal verbs whose second word can be a preposition or an adverb:

blow off

chip off

get down

get through

get up

move down

move up

peel off

poke through

stick in

stick on

position of the object

3.101 When you are using a phrasal verb with an object that is a short noun phrase, you usually have a choice as to where you put the object. It can be placed either after the second word of the phrasal verb or after the first word and before the second word.

He filled up his car with petrol.
She filled my glass up.
He handed over the box.
Mrs Kaul handed the flowers over to Judy.

3.102 However, when the object consists of a long noun phrase, it is more likely to come after the second word of the phrasal verb, so that the two parts of the phrasal verb are not separated too widely. In this way, attention is focused on the information contained in the noun phrase, rather than on the second word of the phrasal verb.

Police have been told to turn back all refugees who try to cross the border.

when the object is a pronoun

3.103 When the object is a pronoun such as me, her, or it, it usually comes before the second word of the phrasal verb. This is because it is not new information, and so it is not put in a position of prominence at the end of the clause.

I waited until he had filled it up.
He tied her up and bundled her into the car.

when the object is an abstract noun

3.104 If the object of a phrasal verb is an abstract noun such as hope, confidence, or support, it usually comes after the second word of the phrasal verb. So, although you can say He built his business up, you usually say We are trying to build up trust with the residents. Similarly, although you can say He put my parents up for the night, you normally say The peasants are putting up a lot of resistance.

The newspapers whipped up sympathy for them.
They attempted to drum up support from the students.
He didn’t hold out much hope for them.

cases where the object is always placed after the first word of the verb

3.105 With a small number of phrasal verbs, the object is always placed between the first and the second words of the verb. For example, you can say I can’t tell your brothers apart but not I can’t tell apart your brothers.

Captain Dean was still ordering everybody about.
I answered my father back and took my chances.

Note that most of these verbs take a human object.

Here is a list of phrasal verbs that always belong in this group when they are used with an object:

answer back

ask in

bash about

bind over

book in

bring round

bring to

brush off

call back

carry back

catch out

churn up

count in

drag down

dress down

drop round

feel out

get away

hear out

help along

invite in

invite out

invite over

jolly along

keep under

knock about

mess about

move about

muck about

order about

play along

play through

pull about

pull to

push about

push around

push to

run through

see through

send ahead

send away

send up

shut up

sit down

slap around

stand up

stare out

string along

talk round

tear apart

tell apart

tip off

truss up

turf out

Some phrasal verbs have more than one transitive sense, but belong in this group when they are used with one particular meaning. For example, take back belongs in this group when it means remind someone of somethingbut not when it means regain something.

The smell of chalk took us all back to our schooldays.
…his ambition of taking back disputed territory.

Here is a list of phrasal verbs that belong in this group when used with a particular meaning:

bowl over

bring down

bring out

buoy up

cut off

do over

draw out

get back

get out

give up

have on

hurry up

keep up

kick around

knock out

knock up

nail down

pass on

pin down

pull apart

push around

put down

put out

see out

set up

shake up

show around

show up

start off

straighten out

take back

take in

take off

throw about

toss about

trip up

turn on

ward off

wind up

objects with prepositions

3.106 Remember that when a phrasal verb consists of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition, the noun phrase always comes after the preposition, even when it is a pronoun.

A number of reasons can account for this change.
They had dealt with the problem intelligently.
If I went away and left you in the flat, would you look after it?

There is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of an intransitive verb and a preposition in paragraph 3.88.

transitive phrasal verbs with prepositions: She talked me into buying it

3.107 Some phrasal verbs consist of a transitive verb and a preposition. They have one noun phrase after the first word, as the object of the verb, and a second noun phrase after the second word, as the object of the preposition.

They agreed to let him into their secret.
The farmer threatened to set his dogs on them.
They’ll hold that against you when you apply next time.

3.108 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and a preposition:

build into

build on

draw into

drum into

frighten into

hold against

keep to

lay before

leave off

let into

lumber with

make of

put on

put onto

put through

read into

set against

set back

set on

talk into

thrust upon

write into

preposition or adverb: I’ll cross you off, I’ll cross you off the list

3.109 In the case of some transitive phrasal verbs, the second word is a preposition if the third thing involved needs to be mentioned, but it is an adverb if the third thing involved is clear from the context.

Rudolph showed them around the theatre.
Rudolph showed them around.

3.110 Here is a list of transitive phrasal verbs whose second word can be a preposition or an adverb:

cross off

dab on

hawk around

hurl about

keep off

knock off

lop off

push around

scrub off

show around

shut in

sink in

intransitive three-word phrasal verbs: look forward to, catch up with

3.111 Most phrasal verbs consist of two words: a verb and an adverb, or a verb and a preposition. However, some phrasal verbs consist of three words: a verb, an adverb, and a preposition. This type of verb is sometimes called a phrasal-prepositional verb.

Most three-word phrasal verbs are intransitive. The preposition at the end is followed by its own object.

His girlfriend walked out on him.
You’re not going to get away with this!
She sometimes finds it hard to keep up with her classmates.
The local people have to put up with a lot of tourists.
Terry Holbrook caught up with me.

3.112 Here is a list of intransitive three-word phrasal verbs:

be in for

be on to

bear down on

boil down to

break out of

brush up on

bump up against

burst in on

call out for

catch up with

chime in with

clamp down on

clean up after

come across as

come down on

come down to

come down with

come in for

come on to

come out in

come out of

come out with

come up against

come up to

come up with

crack down on

creep up on

crowd in on

cry out against

cry out for

cut back on

date back to

do away with

double back on

face up to

fall back on

fall in with

get away with

get down to

get in on

get off with

get on to

get on with

get round to

get up to

give up on

go along with

go back on

go down with

go in for

go off with

go over to

go through with

grow out of

keep in with

keep on at

keep up with

kick out against

lead up to

live up to

look down on

look forward to

look out for

look up to

make away with

make off with

make up to

match up to

measure up to

miss out on

monkey about with

play along with

play around with

put up with

read up on

run away with

run off with

run up against

shy away from

sit in on

snap out of

stick out for

stick up for

suck up to

take up with

talk down to

tie in with

walk away from

walk away with

walk off with

walk out on

wriggle out of

zero in on

transitive three-word phrasal verbs: He talked me out of buying the car

3.113 A few three-word phrasal verbs are transitive. The direct object of the verb comes immediately after the verb. A second noun phrase is put after the preposition, as normal.

I’ll let you in on a secret.
Kroop tried to talk her out of it.
They put their success down to hard work.

Here is a list of transitive three-word phrasal verbs:

do out of

frighten out of

let in for

let in on

play off against

put down as

put down to

put up to

take out on

take up on

talk out of

BE CAREFUL

3.114 In standard written English it is not possible to have indirect objects with phrasal verbs. The only objects you can have are direct objects of the verb and objects of prepositions. In informal spoken English, however, a few phrasal verbs do have both a direct and an indirect object. In such cases, the indirect object is placed between the verb and the particle, and the direct object follows.

Would you break me off a piece of chocolate, please?
We brought her back some special cookies from Germany.

phrasal verbs in questions and relative clauses

3.115 There is one way in which a preposition that is part of a phrasal verb behaves differently from an ordinary preposition.

Normally, when the object of a preposition is put at the beginning of a question or a relative clause, it can be preceded by the preposition, especially in formal speech or writing. For example, you can say From which student did you get the book? and the document on which he put his signature.

However, if the preposition is part of a phrasal verb, it cannot be put before its object in such structures. You have to say What are you getting at? not At what are you getting?, and the difficulties which he ran up against not the difficulties against which he ran up.

Who were they laughing at?
This was one complication he had not bargained for.

3.116 Most phrasal verbs that contain a transitive verb can be used in the passive. So can a few phrasal verbs that contain an intransitive verb and a preposition. See paragraphs 9.17 and 9.23.

Compound verbs: ice-skate, baby-sit

3.117 Some verbs, such as cross-examine and test-drive, consist of two words. They are sometimes called compound verbs.

He would have been cross-examined on any evidence he gave.
He asked to test-drive a top-of-the-range vehicle.
It is not wise to hitch-hike on your own.

BE CAREFUL

3.118 It is important to realize that you cannot always guess the meaning of a compound verb if you are not already familiar with it. For example, to soft-soap does not mean to use soap that is soft; it means to flatter someone in order to persuade them to do something for you.

written forms of compound verbs

3.119 Compound verbs are usually written with a hyphen.

No one had cross-referenced the forms before.
Children ice-skated on the sidewalks.

However, some compound verbs may be written with a space between the words and some may be written as single words. For example, both roller-skate and roller skate are used, as are baby-sit and babysit.

forms of compound verbs

3.120 Many compound verbs consist of a noun plus a verb.

It may soon become economically attractive to mass-produce hepatitis vaccines.

Others consist of an adjective plus a verb.

Somebody had short-changed him.

3.121 A few compound verbs consist of words that seem strange because they are not normally used as single words on their own, for example pooh-pooh and shilly-shally. These verbs are usually used in informal conversation rather than formal writing.

Sally had pooh-poohed the idea of three good meals a day.
Come on, don’t shilly-shally. I want an answer.

Other compound verbs look strange because they have been borrowed from foreign languages, for example ad-lib and kow-tow.

They ad-libbed so much that the writers despaired of them.
He resents having to kow-tow to anyone or anything.

intransitive compound verbs

3.122 Some compound verbs do not have an object.

Many people window-shopped in the glass of the great store.
If you keep to the rules, you may roller-skate.
He has learned to lip-read.
I’m learning to water-ski.

Here is a list of compound verbs that do not have an object:

baby-sit

back-pedal

hitch-hike

ice-skate

jack-knife

kow-tow

lip-read

name-drop

play-act

roller-skate

shilly-shally

touch-type

water-ski

window-shop

wolf-whistle

transitive compound verbs

3.123 Other compound verbs typically have an object:

You can spin-dry it and it will still retain its shape.
I didn’t have time to blow-dry my hair.
At first we cold-shouldered him.
They ill-treated our ancestors.

Here is a list of compound verbs that typically have an object:

back-comb

blow-dry

cold-shoulder

court-martial

cross-check

cross-examine

cross-question

cross-reference

double-cross

double-glaze

dry-clean

field-test

force-feed

frog-march

ghost-write

ill-treat

pooh-pooh

proof-read

rubber-stamp

short-change

short-weight

soft-soap

spin-dry

spoon-feed

stage-manage

tape-record

toilet-train

wrong-foot

transitive or intransitive compound verbs

3.124 A third group of compound verbs may be used with or without an object.

Kate had to double-park outside the flat.
Murray double-parked his car and jumped out.
I tried to ad-lib a joke.
The commentator decided to ad-lib.

Here is a list of compound verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:

ad-lib

bottle-feed

breast-feed

bulk-buy

chain-smoke

criss-cross

deep-fry

double-check

double-park

mass-produce

short-circuit

sight-read

spring-clean

stir-fry

tie-dye

inflecting compound verbs

3.125 Only the second part of a compound verb inflects. If the second part is used on its own as a verb, the compound verb usually inflects in the same way as the verb on its own.

See the Reference Section for an explanation of how to inflect verbs.

Linking verbs

3.126 If you want to describe someone or something, for example to say who or what they are or what qualities they have, you use one of a special set of verbs. These verbs are called linking verbs.

Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health.
The station seemed a very small one.
He looked English.
I became enormously fond of her.

The most common linking verbs are be, become, look, remain, and seem.

adjectives and nouns after linking verbs

3.127 A linking verb links a subject and an adjective or a noun phrase (called a complement). The subject, as usual, comes first and the adjective or noun phrase comes after the verb. The adjective or noun phrase describes or identifies the subject.

Her general knowledge is amazing.
The children seemed frightened.
That’s a very difficult question.
She’s the head of a large primary school.
Suleiman Salle became the first President of Eritrea.

Linking verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.132 to 3.154.

Some other intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a similar way to linking verbs. See paragraphs 3.155 to 3.160.

verbs with object complements: The film made me sad

3.128 Some verbs, such as make and find, are used with an object complement, that is, both an object and an adjective or a noun phrase. The adjective or noun phrase describes the object.

The lights made me sleepy.
I found the forest quite frightening.

These verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.161 to 3.171.

phrases that begin with a preposition

3.129 You can often use a phrase beginning with a preposition after a linking verb.

The first-aid box is on the top shelf.
I began to get in a panic.

For more information about phrases and clauses that can be used after linking verbs, see paragraphs 3.172 to 3.181.

it with be

3.130 Be is often used with it as an impersonal subject. This structure is used to comment on places, situations, actions, experiences, and facts.

It was very quiet in the hut.
It was awkward keeping my news from Ted.
It’s strange you should come today.

Some other linking verbs are occasionally used in a similar way.

The use of it as an impersonal subject is explained in paragraphs 9.31 to 9.45.

there with be

3.131 Be is often used with there as its subject to indicate the existence of something.

There is another explanation.
There is a rear bathroom with a panelled bath.

This use of there is explained in paragraphs 9.46 to 9.55.

Adjectives after linking verbs: He seems happy, I’m tired

3.132 Many adjectives can be used after linking verbs.

I am proud of these people.
They seemed happy.
You don’t want them to become suspicious.
They have remained loyal to the Government.

They can be modified in various ways or have various structures after them.

We were very happy.
Your suspicions are entirely correct.
Their hall was larger than his whole flat.
He was capable of extraordinary kindness.

Adjectives used after linking verbs, and the structures used with them, are explained in paragraphs 2.41 to 2.53.

3.133 Here is a list of verbs that can be used as linking verbs with a following adjective:

appear

feel

look

prove

seem

smell

sound

taste

become

come

fall

get

grow

keep

remain

stay

turn

Note that the verbs in third group refer to changing or to staying the same.

USAGE NOTE

3.134 Some verbs in the second group listed above have special features.

Appear, prove, and seem are often followed by to be and an adjective, instead of directly by an adjective.

Mary was breathing quietly and seemed to be asleep.
Some people appeared to be immune to the virus.

See paragraph 3.192 for information on using a to-infinitive after these verbs.

3.135 With some verbs in the second group, especially feel, look, and seem, you can use the -ed participle of a verb as an adjective.

The other child looked neglected.
The quarrel of the night before seemed forgotten.

3.136 When you are using the second group of verbs to say what qualities someone or something seems to have, you may want to mention the person whose viewpoint you are giving. You can do this by using a phrase beginning with the preposition to. It usually comes after the adjective.

They looked all right to me.
It sounds unnatural to you, I expect.

BE CAREFUL

3.137 You cannot use all adjectives with all linking verbs. Some verbs, such as be and look, are used with a wide range of adjectives and some are used with a restricted range. For example, taste is used only with adjectives that describe the taste of something; go is used mainly with adjectives that indicate colour or a negative state; and fall is used mainly with asleep, ill, and silent.

Sea water tastes nasty.
It tasted sweet like fruit juice.
Jack went red.
It all went horribly wrong.
The world has gone crazy.
He fell asleep at the table.
The courtroom fell silent.

Nouns after linking verbs: She is a teacher, It remained a secret

3.138 Nouns can be used after the following linking verbs:

become

remain

feel

look

prove

seem

sound

constitute

make

represent

comprise

form

qualities

3.139 You can use descriptive nouns or noun phrases after be, become, remain, feel, look, prove, seem, sound, constitute, and represent to say what qualities someone or something has.

Their policy on higher education is an unmitigated disaster.
He always seemed a controlled sort of man.
I feel a bit of a fraud.
The results of these experiments remain a secret.
Any change would represent a turnaround.

Make is only used as a linking verb with a noun that indicates whether someone is good at a particular job.

He’ll make a good president.

using one: That’s a nice one

3.140 With be, become, remain, feel, look, prove, seem, and sound, you can use a noun phrase based on one.

The noun phrase consists of a or an followed by the adjective and one, if the subject is singular. For example, instead of saying The school is large, you can say The school is a large one.

The sound is a familiar one.
The impression the region gives is still a rural one.

If the subject is plural, you can use the adjective followed by ones.

My memories of a London childhood are happy ones.

One can also be followed by a prepositional phrase or a relative clause.

Their story was indeed one of passion.
The problem is one that always faces a society when it finds itself threatened.

size, age, colour, shape

3.141 If you want to make a statement about the size, age, colour, or shape of something, you can use a noun phrase based on size, age, colour, or shape after the linking verbs mentioned in the previous paragraph. The noun phrase begins with a determiner and has an adjective in front of the noun or the preposition of after it.

It’s just the right shape.
The opposing force would be about the same size.
The walls are a delicate pale cream colour.
His body was the colour of bronze.
It is only the size of a mouse.

types of people and things

3.142 You can use noun phrases beginning with a or an, or plural noun phrases without a determiner, after be, become, remain, comprise, and form, to say what type of person or thing someone or something is.

He is a geologist.
I’m not an unreasonable person.
He is now a teenager.
The air moved a little faster and became a light wind.
They became farmers.
Promises by MPs remained just promises.
These arches formed a barrier to the tide.

talking about identity

3.143 You can use names or noun phrases referring to a particular person or thing after be, become, remain, constitute, represent, comprise, and form to talk about exactly who or what someone or something is.

This is Desiree, my father’s second wife.
He’s now the Director of the Office of Management and Budget.
The winner of the competition was Ross Lambert of Forest Hill Primary School.
The downstairs television room became my room for receiving visitors.
…the four young men who comprised the TV crew.

USAGE NOTE

3.144 When you use a noun indicating a unique job or position within an organization, you do not have to put a determiner in front of the noun.

At one time you wanted to be President.
He went on to become head of one of the company’s largest divisions.

pronouns after linking verbs

3.145 Personal pronouns are sometimes used after linking verbs to indicate identity. Note that the object pronouns are used, except in very formal speech or writing.

It’s me again.

Possessive pronouns are also used after linking verbs, to indicate identity or to describe something.

This one is yours.
This place is mine.

Indefinite pronouns are sometimes used to describe something, usually with a qualifying structure after them.

It’s nothing serious.
You’re someone who does what she wants.

When pronouns are used after linking verbs, the linking verb is usually be.

other structures that follow linking verbs

3.146 The use of noun phrases containing measurement nouns after be and other verbs is explained in paragraphs 2.252 to 2.254.

combinations of verbs and prepositions

3.147 Some verbs function as linking verbs when they are followed by a particular preposition.

The object of the preposition describes or classifies the subject of the verb.

His fear turned into unreasoning panic.
Taylor’s fascination with bees developed into an obsession.
An autobiography really amounts to a whole explanation of yourself.

Here is a list of verb and preposition combinations that function as linking verbs:

amount to

change into

change to

develop into

grow into

morph into

turn into

turn to

These all have the same basic meaning as become, except for amount to, which has a similar meaning to constitute.

The phrasal verb make up also functions as a linking verb.

Wood made up 65% of the Congo’s exports.

Commenting

3.148 There are several ways in which a to-infinitive can be used to comment on someone or something in relation to an action.

commenting on behaviour: You’re crazy to do that

3.149 If you want to say that someone shows a particular quality when they do something, you can use the structure: subject + linking verb + adjective or noun phrase + to-infinitive.

Most people think I am brave to do this.
I think my father was a brave man to do what he did.

commenting on suitability: She’s the right person to do the job

3.150 You can use a similar structure to say that someone or something would do a particular task better than anyone or anything else.

He was absolutely the right man to go to Paris and negotiate.
She may be an ideal person to look after the children.
He is just the man to calm everyone down.

You cannot use adjectives alone in constructions of this kind. You use a noun phrase containing an adjective such as right, ideal, or best, or just the followed by the noun person, man, or woman. For example, you can say He was the ideal person to lead the expedition, but you cannot say He was ideal to lead the expedition.

Instead of a to-infinitive, you can sometimes use a phrase beginning with the preposition for. In this structure, an adjective can be used alone.

He’s not the right man for it.
They are ideal for this job.

commenting on an event: That was an awful thing to happen

3.151 If you want to express your feeling about an event, you can use a to-infinitive after a noun phrase that follows a linking verb.

It seemed such a terrible thing to happen.

The to-infinitive consists of to and an intransitive verb, usually happen.

You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this type. For example, you can say It was a wonderful thing to happen, but you cannot say It was wonderful to happen.

commenting on willingness: Chris is anxious to meet you

3.152 If you want to say that someone is willing or unwilling to do something, you can use a to-infinitive after an adjective that follows a linking verb.

They were willing to risk losing their jobs.
I am anxious to meet Mrs Burton-Cox.
She is eager to succeed.
He is unwilling to answer questions.
I was reluctant to involve myself in this private fight.

You cannot use nouns in constructions of this type. For example, you can say He was willing to come, but you cannot say He was a willing person to come.

commenting on something: This case is easy to carry

3.153 If you want to show your opinion of something by describing what the experience of doing something to it is like, you can use a to-infinitive after an adjective or noun phrase that follows a linking verb.

Silk is comfortable to wear.
It’s a nice thing to have.
Telling someone they smell is a hard thing to do.
She was easy to talk to.

Note that the to-infinitive must be the to-infinitive of a transitive verb or of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition.

commenting on an action: That was a silly thing to do

3.154 If you want to show your opinion of an action, you can use a to-infinitive that has an object.

They thought this was a sensible thing to do.
This is a very foolish attitude to take.

The to-infinitive is usually to do, to make, or to take.

You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this kind. For example, you can say It was a silly thing to do, but you cannot say It was silly to do.

Other verbs with following adjectives: He stood still

3.155 Some intransitive verbs can be followed by adjectives in the same way as linking verbs.

George stood motionless for at least a minute.
Pugin died insane at the early age of forty.

However, it is clear that these verbs are not just linking verbs. George stood motionless does not mean the same as George was motionless. In the sentence George stood motionless, the verb stand is performing two functions: it is telling us that George was standing, and it is also acting as a linking verb between George and the adjective motionless.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

hang

lie

sit

stand

gaze

stare

emerge

escape

pass

survive

blush

flame

gleam

glow

run

be born

die

return

Ways in which these verbs can be used with following adjectives are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Adjectives are sometimes used in combination with other verbs, but are separated from the main clause by a comma. This use is dealt with in paragraph 8.147.

USAGE NOTE

3.156 You can use adjectives describing states after hang, lie, sit, and stand.

I used to lie awake watching the rain seep through the roof.
A sparrow lies dead in the snow.
Francis Marroux sat ashen-faced behind the wheel.
She stood quite still, facing him.

Gaze and stare can be used in a similar way with a limited set of adjectives.

She stared at him wide-eyed.

3.157 You can use some combinations of verbs and adjectives to say that something does not happen to someone or something, or that someone does not have something.

Go, pass, emerge, escape, and survive are often used in combinations like these. The adjectives they combine with are often formed by adding un- to -ed participles.

Your efforts won’t go unnoticed.
The guilty went unpunished.
Somehow, his reputation emerged unblemished.
Fortunately we all escaped unscathed.
Mostly, they go unarmed.
The children always went barefoot.

3.158 Verbs such as blush, flame, gleam, glow, and run can be used with colour adjectives after them to say what colour something is or what colour it becomes.

They blew into the charcoal until it glowed red.
The trees flamed scarlet against the grass.

3.159 Die, return, and the passive verb be born can be followed by either adjectives or noun phrases.

She died young.
He died a disappointed man.
At the end of the war, he returned a slightly different man.
He was born a slave.

fixed phrases

3.160 Some combinations of verb and adjective are fixed phrases. You cannot use the verb in front of any other adjective.

I wanted to travel light.
The children ran wild.
The joke was wearing thin with use.

Describing the object of a verb

3.161 You can put an adjective after the object of some transitive verbs. This adjective describes the object, and is often called an object complement.

Willie’s remarks made her uneasy.
I find the British legal system extremely complicated.

Some of these verbs are used to say that someone or something is changed or that someone is given a new job. Others are used to describe a person’s opinion of someone or something.

For information on how to use these verbs in the passive, see paragraph 9.21.

verbs that relate to causing something to happen: Their comments made me angry

3.162 If you want to say that someone or something causes a person or thing to have a particular quality, you can use one of a group of transitive verbs, followed by an adjective.

He said waltzes made him dizzy.
They’re driving me crazy.
Then his captor had knocked him unconscious.
She painted her eyelids deep blue.
He wiped the bottle dry.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

cut

drive

get

knock

make

paint

pat

pick

plane

render

rub

send

shoot

sweep

turn

wipe

Most of these verbs can be followed by only one adjective or a very small range of adjectives. However make and render can be used with a wide range of adjectives.

keep, hold, leave

3.163 You can also use keep, hold, and leave with an object followed by an adjective, to say that someone or something is caused to remain in a particular state.

The light through the thin curtains had kept her awake.
Leave the door open.
Hold it straight.

verbs that relate to giving someone a job or role

3.164 If you want to say that someone is given an important job, you can use make, appoint, crown, or elect with an object followed by a noun phrase referring to the job.

In 1910 Asquith made him a junior minister.

The noun used in this way does not usually have a determiner when it refers to a unique job.

Ramsay MacDonald appointed him Secretary of State for India.

verbs of opinion

3.165 Some transitive verbs with the general meaning consider can be used with an adjective or noun phrase to say what someone’s opinion of a person or thing is.

They consider him an embarrassment.
Do you find his view of America interesting?

Here is a list of these verbs:

account

believe

consider

deem

find

hold

judge

presume

reckon

think

Prove can also be followed by an object complement, although it means show, not consider.

He had proved them wrong.

3.166 These verbs are often used in the passive. Believe, presume, reckon, and think are nearly always used in the passive in these structures.

Her body was never found and she was presumed dead.
30 bombers were believed shot down.

3.167 All the verbs listed in paragraph 3.165 except account can also be used with a to-infinitive clause after their object showing what someone thinks a person or thing is like or does.

We believed him to be innocent.

See paragraph 3.206 for information about using a to-infinitive clause after the object of these verbs.

3.168 You can use the verbs listed in 3.165 with it as their object followed by an object complement and a to-infinitive clause to show someone’s opinion of an action. For example, instead of saying She found breathing difficult, you can say She found it difficult to breathe.

Gretchen found it difficult to speak.
He thought it right to resign.
He considered it his duty to go.

These are examples of it being used in an impersonal way. For more information about the impersonal use of it, see paragraphs 9.31 to 9.45.

describing and naming

3.169 If you want to say that people use a particular word, word group, or name to describe or refer to someone or something, you can use the word, word group, or name after one of a group of transitive verbs.

People who did not like him called him dull.
They called him an idiot.
Everyone called her Molly.
He was declared innocent.
They named the place Tumbo Kutu.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way. The first group is followed by an adjective; the second group is followed by a noun phrase; and the third group is followed by a name.

call

certify

declare

label

pronounce

term

brand

call

declare

designate

label

proclaim

term

call

christen

dub

name

nickname

titles

3.170 The passive verbs be entitled, be headed, and be inscribed are followed by a title or inscription.

The draft document was entitled ‘A way forward’.

describing states

3.171 A few transitive verbs can be followed by an adjective to say that someone or something is in a particular state when something happens to them, or is preferred to be in that state.

More than forty people were burned alive.
…a soup that can be served cold.
They found it dead.
Do you want it white or black?

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

burn

eat

find

leave

prefer

serve

show

want

Sometimes an -ed participle or an -ing participle describing a state is used.

She found herself caught in a strong tidal current.
Maureen came in and found Kate sitting on a chair staring at the window.

Using a prepositional phrase after a linking verb

3.172 When you want to give information about someone or something by describing their circumstances, you can sometimes use a prepositional phrase after a linking verb.

use after be

3.173 You can use many kinds of prepositional phrase after be.

He was still in a state of shock.
I walked home with Bill, who was in a very good mood.
She had an older brother who was in the army.
I’m from Dortmund originally.
…people who are under pressure.
Your comments are of great interest to me.
This book is for any woman who has a child.

use after other verbs

3.174 Some other linking verbs can be used with a more restricted range of prepositional phrases.

He seemed in excellent health.
We do ask people to keep in touch with us.
These methods have gradually fallen into disuse.
He got into trouble with the police.

Here is a list of other linking verbs that are used with prepositional phrases:

appear

fall

feel

get

keep

remain

seem

stay

referring to place

3.175 Some verbs that are always or often followed by an adjective can also be used with prepositional phrases relating to place.

She’s in California.
I’ll stay here with the children.
The cat was now lying on the sofa.

Here is a list of these verbs:

keep

remain

stay

hang

lie

sit

stand

For more information about prepositional phrases and adverbs relating to place, see paragraphs 6.73 to 6.92 and 6.53 to 6.72.

referring to time

3.176 Be can be used with time expressions to say when something took place or will take place.

That final meeting was on 3 November.

For more information about time expressions, see paragraphs 4.85 to 4.111.

use in transitive structures

3.177 Prepositional phrases can also be used in transitive structures to say that someone or something is caused to be in a particular state.

They’ll get me out of trouble.
The fear of being discovered kept me on the alert.

Talking about what role something has or how it is perceived: the preposition as

3.178 Prepositional phrases beginning with as can be used after some verbs.

use in intransitive structures

3.179 Prepositional phrases beginning with as are used after certain intransitive verbs to show what role or function the subject has, or what identity they pretend to have.

Bleach removes colour and acts as an antiseptic and deodoriser.
He served as Kennedy’s ambassador to India.
The sitting room doubles as her office.

Here is a list of verbs that can be followed by as in this way:

act

come

double

function

pass

pose

serve

Work can also be used in this way, when it has a human subject.

She works as a counsellor with an AIDS charity.

use in transitive structures

3.180 A number of transitive verbs can be used with as after their object.

With some, a noun phrase is used after as. The as phrase describes the role of the object or what it is thought to be.

I wanted to use him as an agent.
I treated business as a game.

Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with as and a noun phrase:

brand

cast

categorize

certify

characterize

choose

class

condemn

consider

define

denounce

depict

describe

diagnose

elect

establish

give

hail

identify

intend

interpret

label

name

perceive

recognize

regard

scorn

see

suggest

take

treat

use

view

With others, an adjective is used after as. The adjective indicates what quality or characteristic the object is thought to have.

Party members and officials described him as brilliant.
They regarded manual work as degrading.

Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with as and an adjective:

brand

categorize

certify

characterize

class

condemn

define

denounce

depict

describe

diagnose

establish

label

perceive

regard

scorn

see

view

3.181 Look upon, refer to, and think of are also used with as in this way. As must be followed by a noun when used with refer to.

In some households the man was referred to as the master.

Talking about closely linked actions: using two main verbs together

3.182 This section describes the ways in which you use two main verbs together to talk about two actions or states that are closely linked.

These two actions may be performed by the same person. See paragraphs 3.189 to 3.201.

She stopped speaking.
Davis likes to talk about horses.

Alternatively, the actions may be performed by different people. If they are, the performer of the second action is the object of the first verb. See paragraphs 3.202 to 3.212.

I don’t want them to feel I’ve slighted them.
One of the group began pumping her chest to help her breathe.

3.183 Note that the first verb needs the second verb after it because it does not give enough information on its own. For example, I want does not give enough information to be a useful statement, but I want to talk to you does.

Some of the verbs dealt with below, for example want and like, can also be ordinary transitive verbs, with a noun phrase after them. Transitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.14 to 3.25.

3.184 If you want to talk about two actions that are less closely linked, you refer to each action in a separate clause. Ways of combining clauses are explained in Chapter 8.

verb forms

3.185 The first verb involved in this type of structure is the main verb of the structure. It usually inflects for tense and agrees in number with the subject; it is finite.

I wanted to come home.
Lonnie wants to say sorry.
More and more people are coming to appreciate the contribution that these people make to our society.

3.186 The second verb in the combination does not inflect for tense or change its form at all; it is non-finite.

She tried to read.
They had been trying to read.

Information about finite and non-finite forms can be found in the Reference Section.

3.187 There are four non-finite verb forms that are used for the second verb in this type of structure:

the -ing participle

the to-infinitive

the infinitive without to

the -ed participle

Note that the infinitive without to and the -ed participle form of the verb are used in only a few combinations.

Other kinds of -ing form and infinitive are also sometimes used.

Those very close to the blast risk being burnt.
Neither Rita nor I recalled ever having seen her.
She wanted to be reassured.
They claimed to have shot down 22 planes.

3.188 The position of not in negative structures of this type is explained in paragraphs 5.57 and 5.58.

Talking about two actions done by the same person

3.189 When you are talking about two actions that are done by the same person, you use the second verb directly after the first.

Children enjoy playing alongside each other.
You deserve to know the truth.

verbs followed by an -ing participle

3.190 Some verbs are always followed by an -ing participle clause in structures of this kind.

She admitted lying to him.
Have you finished reading the paper?
He missed having someone to dislike.
I recall being very impressed with the official anthems.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with an -ing participle, but not a to-infinitive:

admit

adore

appreciate

avoid

celebrate

commence

consider

contemplate

defer

delay

deny

describe

detest

discontinue

dislike

dread

endure

enjoy

fancy

finish

imagine

keep

lie

loathe

mention

mind

miss

postpone

practise

recall

report

resent

resist

risk

sit

stand

stop

suggest

These verbs are also sometimes used with a passive -ing form.

They enjoy being praised.

Admit, celebrate, deny, mention, and recall are quite often used with a perfect -ing form.

Carmichael had denied having seen him.

USAGE NOTE

3.191 Note that need can be used with an -ing participle after it, but the -ing participle then has the same meaning as a passive to-infinitive. For example, The house needs cleaning means the same as The house needs to be cleaned.

Require and want are also occasionally used in the same way, although some people do not like this use of want.

verbs followed by a to-infinitive

3.192 Other verbs are used with a to-infinitive.

Mrs Babcock had always longed to go to Ireland.
She forgot to bring a suitcase.
She wishes to ask a favour of you.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with a to-infinitive, and rarely or never with an -ing participle:

ache

afford

agree

aim

appear

arrange

ask

attempt

care

choose

claim

consent

dare

decide

demand

deserve

desire

disdain

endeavour

expect

fail

fight

forget

grow

happen

help

hesitate

hope

intend

learn

live

long

manage

mean

need

neglect

offer

opt

pay

plan

pledge

prepare

pretend

promise

prove

reckon

refuse

resolve

scorn

seek

seem

survive

swear

tend

threaten

trouble

venture

volunteer

vote

vow

wait

want

wish

Most of these verbs can be used with a passive infinitive.

She refused to be photographed.
He deserves to be shot.

The following verbs from the above list are not usually used with a passive infinitive, because of their meanings:

claim

dare

forget

intend

learn

manage

mean

neglect

pretend

threaten

trouble

venture

Appear, claim, happen, pretend, prove, seem, and tend are quite often used with a perfect infinitive.

They seemed to have disappeared.

Note that help is also followed by the infinitive without to.

Coffee helped keep him alert.

USAGE NOTE

3.193 Note that afford is always preceded by a modal, and that care is normally used with a negative.

Can we afford to ignore this source of power as other sources of energy are diminishing? …a kitchen for someone who doesn’t care to cook.

3.194 The use of have followed by a to-infinitive clause is explained in paragraph 5.242.

verbs used with either form

3.195 A few verbs can be used with either an -ing participle or a to-infinitive without changing the meaning of the verb.

It started raining.
A very cold wind had started to blow.
We both love dancing.
He loves to talk about his work.

Here is a list of verbs that can be followed either by an -ing participle or a to-infinitive without greatly changing the meaning:

attempt

begin

bother

cease

continue

deserve

fear

hate

love

prefer

start

Note that bother is often used with a negative or a broad negative.

He didn’t bother complaining about it.
We hardly even bother to clean it.

USAGE NOTE

3.196 With a few verbs, the meaning is altered depending on whether you use an -ing participle or a to-infinitive. These verbs are come, go on, remember, try, and regret.

If someone comes running, flying, or hurtling somewhere, they move in that way. If you come to do something, you gradually start doing it.

When they heard I was leaving, they both came running out.
People came to believe that all things were possible.

If you try to do something, you attempt it, to see if you can do it. If you try doing something, you do it in order to find out if it is effective.

She tried to think calmly.
Try lying down in a dark room for a while. That usually helps.

With the other verbs, the difference in meaning relates to the timing of the action.

If you go on doing something, you continue to do it, but if you go on to do something, you subsequently start doing it.

They went on arguing into the night.
She went on to talk about the political consequences.

If you remember doing something, you did it in the past, but if you remember to do something, you do it at the present time.

I remember promising that I would try.
We must remember to say thank you.

Similarly, if you regret doing something, you have already done it, but if you regret to do something, you have to do it at the present time.

She did not regret accepting his offer.
I regret to say rents went up.

Regret is only used with the to-infinitive of a small number of verbs that share the meaning of giving or receiving information. These verbs are:

announce

inform

learn

say

see

tell

BE CAREFUL

3.197 When you have a choice between an -ing participle and a to-infinitive, you do not use the -ing participle if the first verb is in a progressive form.

The Third World is beginning to export to the West.
The big clouds were starting to cover the sun.
Educational budgets are continuing to increase.

With verbs that cannot be followed by a to-infinitive, you normally use a noun phrase instead of the -ing participle.

I knew Miss Head would just be finishing her cello practice.

3.198 Note that a few verbs, principally need, want, have, buy, and choose, are used with an object and a to-infinitive when talking about two actions performed by the same person. The to-infinitive must be transitive. It is understood as relating to the noun, rather than being closely connected with the first verb.

I need a car to drive to work.
She chose the correct one to put in her bag.

to-infinitive showing purpose

3.199 Note that verbs that refer to a deliberate action are sometimes followed by a clause expressing purpose. Here, to means in order to.

Several women moved to help her.
The captain stopped to reload the machine-gun.

Note that the first verb has a complete meaning of its own; the second verb is giving a reason for the first action, not completing the information about it.

See paragraphs 8.43 to 8.46 for more details on expressing purpose.

USAGE NOTE

3.200 When the base form of try is used, for example as an imperative or with a modal, it is sometimes used with and followed by the base form of the second verb, rather than with a to-infinitive. The two actions seem to be separate, because of the and, but are in fact very closely linked.

Try and get a torch or a light, it’s terribly dark down here.
I’ll try and answer the question.

Some speakers consider this to be informal or incorrect.

Come and go are often used in a similar way with and, in simple forms as well as in the base form. The verb after and can also inflect.

Come and see me whenever you feel depressed.
I went and fetched another glass.

get with an -ed participle

3.201 In informal spoken English, get is sometimes used with an -ed participle directly after it, in a structure with a passive meaning.

Then he got killed in a plane crash.

When get is used to form passives in the past and present perfect, American English normally uses the participle gotten, rather than got.

Her foot had gotten caught between some rocks. (Am)

Talking about two actions done by different people

3.202 If you want to talk about two closely linked actions that are performed by different people, you follow the first verb with an object. This object then functions as the subject of the second verb. For example, in She asked Ginny to collect the book, Ginny is the person who is asked, and she is also the person who performs the action of collecting the book.

I saw him looking at my name on the door.
You can’t stop me seeing him!

use of possessive determiner

3.203 Note that when the second verb is an -ing participle, a possessive determiner is sometimes used in front of it, instead of a pronoun. This is rather formal.

These professional ethics prevent their discussing their clients with the public.
She did not like my living in London.

Note that a possessive determiner is only used in this way when the second verb can have a human subject.

transitive verbs with an -ing participle

3.204 Some verbs are used with an object and an -ing participle.

He caught Hooper looking at him.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with an object and an -ing participle:

catch

describe

feel

find

hear

imagine

keep

leave

notice

observe

picture

prevent

save

see

send

spot

stop

want

watch

Listen to also belongs in this group. The object after it is the object of the preposition to.

I listened to Kaspar talking.

These verbs are sometimes used with a passive -ing form, but not usually with a perfect -ing form.

She felt herself being spun around.

verbs with an infinitive without to

3.205 Some of the verbs in the above paragraph can also be used with an infinitive without to.

She felt her hair rise on the back of her neck
Dr Hochstadt heard her gasp.

There is a slight change of meaning depending on which form is used. If you choose the -ing participle, you emphasize that the action continued happening for a period of time.

But I stayed there, listening to her singing.
I looked over and saw Joe staring at me.

If you choose the infinitive without to, you emphasize that the action was completed.

We listened to Jenny finish the sonnet.
It was the first time she had heard him speak of his life.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with an -ing participle or an infinitive without to, with the change of meaning described above:

feel

hear

listen to

notice

observe

see

watch

Note that these verbs can be used in the active only when they are followed by an infinitive without to. See also paragraph 3.208.

transitive verbs with a to-infinitive

3.206 Other verbs are used with an object and a to-infinitive clause.

His sister had taught him to sew.
I encourage students to do these exercises at home.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with an object and a to-infinitive:

advise

allow

ask

beg

cause

challenge

choose

command

compel

dare

defy

enable

encourage

expect

forbid

force

get

help

induce

inspire

instruct

intend

invite

lead

leave

mean

move

oblige

order

pay

permit

persuade

prefer

press

programme

prompt

recruit

remind

teach

tell

train

trust

urge

use

want

warn

Note that some of the verbs in the above list are used for reporting orders, requests, and advice. For more information on this use, see paragraph 7.39.

Here is a list of verbs that are always or usually used in the passive when followed by a to-infinitive:

allege

assume

believe

claim

consider

deem

discover

estimate

feel

find

know

learn

prove

reckon

report

require

rumour

say

see

think

understand

They refer to saying, thinking, or discovering. The to-infinitive that follows them is most commonly be or have, or a perfect infinitive.

The house was believed to be haunted.
He was proved to be wrong.

using the passive

3.207 If you do not know who the subject of the second verb is, or you do not want to mention them, you can use a passive construction.

A gardener was immediately sacked if he was caught smoking.
I was asked to come for a few days to help them.

The following verbs are not usually used in the passive when followed by an -ing participle:

feel

imagine

listen to

prevent

save

stop

want

The following verbs are not usually used in the passive when followed by a to-infinitive:

defy

get

prefer

want

USAGE NOTE

3.208 Hear, observe, and see are not used with a to-infinitive when they are active but they can be used with either an -ing participle or a to-infinitive when they are passive.

You use them with an -ing participle when you want to show that the action described by the second verb took place over a period of time.

A terrorist was seen standing in the middle of the road.
Her companions could be heard playing games.

If a to-infinitive is used, you are implying that the action was completed.

She could distinctly be seen to hesitate.
The baby was seldom heard to cry.