English Grammar, Third edition (2011)
4. Expressing time: tenses and time adverbials
Introduction
4.1 When you are making a statement, you usually need to make it clear whether you are talking about a situation that exists now, existed in the past, or is likely to exist in the future. There are different ways of expressing time: tense is one; the use of time adverbials is another.
A tense is a verb form that indicates a particular point in time or period of time.
The form belonging to a particular tense is obtained by the addition of inflections to the base form of the verb. In English, time is also indicated by the inclusion of auxiliaries or modals in the verb phrase.
smile…smiled
was smiling…has been smiling…had smiled
will smile…may smile
Some verbs have irregular forms for past tenses.
fight…fought
go…went
For information about all these forms, see the Reference Section.
4.2 Sometimes the point in time is clear from the tense of the verb, and no other time reference is required. However, if you want to draw attention to the time of the action, you use a time adverbial.
A time adverbial may be (i) an adverb (e.g. afterwards, immediately), (ii) a prepositional phrase (e.g. at eight o’clock, on Monday), or (iii) a noun phrase (e.g. the next day, last week).
She’s moving tomorrow.
He was better after undergoing surgery on Saturday.
Record profits were announced last week.
For more general information about adverbials, see the beginning of Chapter 6.
position of time adverbial
4.3 Time adverbials normally come at the end of a clause, after the verb or after its object if there is one. You can put more focus on the time by placing the adverbial at the beginning of the clause.
We’re getting married next year.
Next year, the museum is expecting even more visitors.
I was playing golf yesterday.
Yesterday the atmosphere at the factory was tense.
If the time adverbial is an adverb, it can also come immediately after be or after the first auxiliary in a verb phrase.
She is now pretty well-known in this country.
Cooper had originally been due to retire last week.
Public advertisements for the post will soon appear in the national press.
duration and frequency
4.4 Some verb forms are used to say that an event takes place continuously over a period of time, or is repeated several times. You may also want to say how long something lasts, or how often it happens. To do this, adverbials of duration (e.g. for a long time) and adverbials of frequency (e.g. often, every year) are used.
America has always been highly influential.
People are sometimes scared to say what they really think.
Hundreds of people are killed every year in fires.
They would go on talking for hours.
Adverbials of frequency are explained and listed in paragraphs 4.114 to 4.122. Adverbials of duration are explained and listed in paragraphs 4.123 to 4.144.
4.5 The following paragraphs describe the ways in which you can talk about the present, the past, and the future. After each of these, there is a section on the ways in which you use time adverbials with each tense.
There are some time adverbials that are used mainly with the past tenses. These are explained in paragraph 4.41. Time adverbials that are used with future forms can be found in paragraphs 4.60 to 4.62.
subordinate clauses
4.6 This chapter deals only with the choice of tense in main clauses.
Sometimes, the point in time is not indicated by a time adverbial, but by a subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses of time are introduced by conjunctions that refer to time, such as since, until, before, and after.
For information about the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause, see paragraph 8.9.
The present
4.7 In situations where you are discussing an existing state of affairs, you use a verb that is in the present tense. Usually, the verb tense is sufficient to show that you are referring to the present. You normally only use a time adverbial for emphasis, or to refer to something that is unrelated to the present moment.
The present in general: the present simple
the present moment
4.8 If you want to talk about your thoughts and feelings at the present moment, or about your immediate reactions to something, you use the present simple.
I’m awfully busy.
They both taste the same.
Gosh, he looks awful.
I want a breath of fresh air.
You can also use the present simple to talk about a physical feeling that is affecting you or someone else.
I feel heavy. I do. I feel drowsy.
My stomach hurts.
Note, however, that if you are talking about physical perceptions such as seeing and hearing, you normally use the modal can, although the present simple is occasionally used.
I can see the fishing boats coming in.
I can smell it. Can’t you?
I see a flat stretch of ground.
I hear approaching feet.
general present including present moment
4.9 If you want to talk about a settled state of affairs that includes the present moment but where the particular time reference is not important, you use the present simple.
My dad works in Saudi Arabia.
He lives in the French Alps near the Swiss border.
He is a very good brother. We love him.
She’s a doctor’s daughter.
Meanwhile, Atlantic City faces another dilemma.
general truths
4.10 If you want to say that something is always or generally true, you use the present simple.
Near the equator, the sun evaporates greater quantities of water.
A molecule of water has two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
A chemical reaction occurs in the fuel cell.
regular or habitual actions
4.11 If you want to talk about something that a particular person or thing does regularly or habitually, you use the present simple.
Do you smoke?
I get up early and eat my breakfast listening to the radio.
used in reviews
4.12 You usually use the present simple when you are discussing what happens in a book, play, or film.
In the film he plays the central character of Charles Smithson.
In those early chapters, he keeps himself very much in the background.
USAGE NOTE
4.13 You can use the present simple of the verb say when you are describing something you have read in a book.
The criminal justice system, the author says, has failed to keep pace with the drug problem.
The Bible says love of money is the root of all evil.
used in commentaries
4.14 On radio and television, commentators often use the present simple when they are describing an event such as a sports match or a ceremony at the time that it is happening.
He turns, he shoots, he scores!
used in reporting
4.15 When you are reporting what someone said to you at a point in the recent past, you can use the present simple of a reporting verb such as hear or tell.
I’ve never been paragliding myself, but they tell me it’s a really exciting sport.
Tamsin’s a good cook, I hear.
Grace says you told her to come over here.
For more detailed information about reporting verbs, see Chapter 7.
used in commenting
4.16 When you are commenting on what you are saying or doing, you use the present simple of a verb such as admit, promise, reject, or enclose. For more information on this type of verb, see paragraphs 7.64 to 7.67.
This, I admit, was my favourite activity.
I enclose a small cheque which may come in handy.
I leave it for you to decide.
The present progressive
the moment of speaking
4.17 If you want to talk about an activity that is in progress, you use the present progressive.
We’re having a meeting. Come and join in.
What am I doing? I’m looking out of the window.
My head is aching.
I’m already feeling tense.
emphasizing the present moment
4.18 If you want to emphasize the present moment or to indicate that a situation is temporary, you use the present progressive.
Only one hospital, at Angal, is functioning.
We’re trying to create a more democratic society.
She’s spending the summer in Europe.
I’m working as a British Council Officer.
progressive change
4.19 You also use the present progressive to talk about changes, trends, development, and progress.
The village is changing but it is still undisturbed.
His handwriting is improving.
World energy demand is increasing at a rate of about 3% per year.
habitual actions
4.20 If you want to talk about a habitual action that takes place regularly, especially one that is new or temporary, you use the present progressive.
You’re going out a lot these days.
Do you know if she’s still playing these days?
She’s seeing a lot more of them.
Time adverbials with reference to the present
4.21 You do not normally need to use an additional time adverbial with present forms of verbs, but you can add them in order to emphasize the immediate present or general present, or to contrast the present with the past or future.
They’re getting on quite well at the moment.
We’re safe now.
What’s the matter with you today, Marnie?
I haven’t got a grant this year.
general truths
4.22 If you are using the present simple to talk about something that is always or generally true, you can reinforce or weaken your statement by using an adverb.
Babies normally lose weight in the beginning.
The attitude is usually one of ridicule.
Traditionally, the Japanese prefer good quality clothes.
Here is a list of common adverbs that can be used to modify your statement in this way:
always
generally
mainly
normally
often
traditionally
usually
The use of the present simple to talk about general truths is explained in paragraph 4.10.
regular actions
4.23 When you use the present simple to say that an action takes place regularly, you can use an adverbial of frequency such as often or sometimes to be more specific about how often it happens.
Several groups meet weekly.
I visit her about once every six months.
It seldom rains there.
I never drink alone.
The use of the present simple to talk about regular activities is explained in paragraph 4.11.
More information about adverbials of frequency, including a list of the most common ones, can be found in paragraphs 4.114 to 4.122.
frequent actions
4.24 The present progressive is also used with words like always and forever when you want to emphasize how often the action takes place. This use expresses disapproval or annoyance. The adverb is placed after the auxiliary verb.
You’re always looking for faults.
It’s always raining.
And she’s always talking to him on the telephone.
They are forever being knocked down by cars.
The use of the present progressive to talk about frequent, habitual actions is explained in paragraph 4.20.
time adverbials with present verb forms
4.25 Note that some adverbs that refer to the present time, such as now and today, are also used to express past time. However, there are a few adverbs and other time adverbials that are almost always used with present verb forms.
I’m not planning on having children at present. …the camping craze that is currently sweeping America.
Nowadays fitness is becoming a generally accepted principle of life.
The following is a list of time adverbials that are normally only used with present verb forms:
at present
currently
in this day and age
nowadays
presently
these days
Note that in this list the word presently means now.
The past
4.26 When you are talking about the past, a time adverbial is necessary to specify the particular time in the past you are referring to. The time reference can be established in a previous clause, and the verbs in the following clauses are therefore put in the past tense.
It was very cold that night. Over my head was a gap in the reed matting of the roof.
The house was damaged by fire yesterday. No-one was injured.
Stating a definite time in the past: the past simple
4.27 If you want to say that an event occurred or that something was the case at a particular time in the past, you use the past simple.
The Israeli Prime Minister flew into New York yesterday to start his visit to the US.
Our regular window cleaner went off to Canada last year.
On 1 February 1968 he introduced the Industrial Expansion Bill.
They gave me medication to help me relax.
past situations
4.28 If you want to say that a situation existed over a period of time in the past, you also use the past simple.
He lived in Paris during his last years.
Throughout his life he suffered from epilepsy
4.29 If you are talking about something that happened in the past, and you mention a situation that existed at that time, you use the past simple. You can do this whether or not the situation still exists.
All the streets in this part of Watford looked alike.
About fifty miles from the university there was one of India’s most famous and ancient Hindu temples.
habitual and regular actions
4.30 If you want to talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past, but that no longer occurs, you use the past simple.
We walked a great deal when I was a boy.
Each week we trekked to the big house.
Would and used to can also be used to say that something happened regularly in the past but no longer does so. See paragraphs 5.112 and 5.253 for more information.
Actions in progress in the past: the past progressive
repeated actions
4.31 If you want to focus on action in progress or repeated actions that occurred in the past, you use the past progressive.
Her tooth was aching, her burnt finger was hurting.
He was looking ill.
Everyone was begging the captain to surrender.
I was meeting thousands of people and getting to know no one.
contrasting events
4.32 If you want to contrast a situation with an event that happened just after that situation existed, you use the past progressive to describe the first situation. You then use the past simple to describe and draw attention to the event that occurred after it.
We were all sitting round the fire waiting for my brother to come home. He arrived about six in the evening.
I was waiting angrily on Monday morning when I saw Mrs. Miller.
The past in relation to the present: the present perfect
4.33 If you want to mention something that happened in the past but you do not want to state a specific time, you use the present perfect.
They have raised £180 for a swimming pool.
I have noticed this trait in many photographers.
BE CAREFUL
4.34 You cannot use time adverbials that place the action at a definite time in the past with the present perfect. For example, you cannot say I have done it yesterday.
You can, however, use an adverbial of duration.
The settlers have left the bay forever.
I ate brown rice, which I have always hated, and vegetables from my garden.
Adverbials of duration are explained and listed in paragraphs 4.123 to 4.142.
You can also use since and for with the present perfect because when they are used in this way they refer to a definite time.
They have been back every year since then.
She has worked for him for ten years.
For more information on since see paragraph 4.137. Other uses of for are explained in paragraphs 4.125 to 4.128.
situations that still exist
4.35 If you want to talk about an activity or situation that started at some time in the past, continued, and is still happening now, you use the present perfect or the present perfect progressive.
All my adult life I have waited for the emergence of a strong centre party.
She’s always felt that films should be entertaining.
National productivity has been declining.
I have been dancing since I was a child.
emphasizing duration of event
4.36 If you want to emphasize the duration of a recent event, you use the present perfect progressive.
She’s been crying.
Some people will say that what I have been describing is not a crisis of industry.
The Department of Aboriginal Affairs has recently been conducting a survey of Australian Aborigines.
Events before a particular time in the past: the past perfect
4.37 If you want to talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in the past, you use the past perfect.
One day he noticed that a culture plate had become contaminated by a mould.
Before the war, he had worked as a bank manager.
She had lost her job as a real estate agent and was working as a waitress.
I detested games and had always managed to avoid children’s parties.
emphasizing time and duration
4.38 If you want to emphasize the recentness and the duration of a continuous activity that took place before a particular time in the past, you use the past perfect progressive.
Until now the rumours that had been circulating were exaggerated versions of the truth.
The doctor had been working alone.
He died in hospital where he had been receiving treatment for cancer.
They had been hitting our trucks regularly.
expectations and wishes
4.39 If you want to say that something was expected, wished for, or intended before a particular time in the past, you use the past perfect or the past perfect progressive.
She had naturally assumed that once there was a theatre everybody would want to go.
It was the remains of a ten-rupee note which she had hoped would last till the end of the week.
It was not as nice on the terrace as Clarissa had expected.
I had been expecting some miraculous obvious change.
Time adverbials with reference to the past
4.40 When you are using past verb forms, you normally use a time adverbial to indicate that you are talking about the past.
At one time the arts of reading and writing were classed among the great mysteries of life for the majority of people.
I’ve made some poor decisions lately, but I’m feeling much better now.
It was very splendid once, but it’s only a ruin now.
It’s Mark who lost his wife.
A year last January.
It was terribly hot yesterday.
types of time adverbial
4.41 Time adverbials can refer either to a specific time, or to a more general indefinite period of time.
The lists below give the most common indefinite time adverbials that are used mainly with past verb forms. With the exception of since and ever since, which come at the end of a clause, you put them after the auxiliary or modal in a verb phrase that has more than one word; if you use them with the past simple you put them in front of the verb.
The words in the following list can be used with all past verb forms:
again
already
earlier
ever since
finally
first
in the past
just
last
previously
recently
since
The words in the following list can be used with all past verb forms except the present perfect:
afterwards
at one time
eventually
formerly
immediately
next
once
originally
subsequently
Note that once here means at some time in the past. For its uses as an adverb of frequency, see paragraph 4.115.
For the uses of since as a preposition in time adverbials, see paragraph 4.137.
Some time adverbials used with past verb forms are more specific. They include words like yesterday, ago, other, and last. Note that ago is placed after the noun phrase.
I saw him yesterday evening.
We bought the house from her the day before yesterday.
Three weeks ago I was staying in San Francisco.
I saw my goddaughter the other day.
It all happened a long time ago.
BE CAREFUL
4.42 You say last night, not yesterday night.
used for emphasis
4.43 There are some cases where you have to specify the time reference. In other cases, you may simply want to make the timing of the action clear, or emphatic. These cases are described below.
used with the past simple
4.44 When you use the past simple to describe habitual or regular activities, you can use an adverbial of frequency to indicate the regularity or repetition of the activity.
He often agreed to work quite cheaply.
Sometimes he read so much that he became confused.
Etta phoned Guppy every day.
The use of the past simple to describe habitual actions is explained in paragraph 4.30.
used with the past progressive
4.45 If you are using the past progressive to talk about repeated actions, you can add an adverb of frequency such as always or forever after the auxiliary to emphasize the frequency of the action or to express your annoyance about it.
In the immense shed where we worked, something was always going wrong.
She was always knitting – making sweaters or baby clothes.
Our builder was forever going on skiing holidays.
The use of the past progressive to describe repeated actions is explained in paragraph 4.31.
used with the present perfect
4.46 When you use the present perfect to mention something that is still relevant to the present, you can add an adverb of frequency to show that the action was repeated.
I’ve often wondered why we didn’t move years ago.
Political tensions have frequently spilled over into violence.
The use of the present perfect to talk about situations that are still relevant is explained in paragraph 4.33.
4.47 Note that if you are talking about a quality, attitude, or possession that still exists or is still relevant, you need to use the present perfect with an adverbial of duration.
We’ve had it for fifteen years.
He’s always liked you, you know.
I have known him for years.
My people have been at war since 1917.
4.48 If you use the present perfect and the present perfect progressive to mention a continuing activity that began in the past, you can add an adverbial of duration to show how long it has been going on.
For about a week he had been complaining of a bad headache.
They have been meeting regularly for two years.
He has looked after me well since his mother died.
The use of the present perfect and the present perfect progressive to talk about activities that began in the past is explained in paragraph 4.35.
used with the past perfect
4.49 When you use the past perfect to describe a repeated event that took place before a particular time in the past, you use an adverbial of frequency to show how often it was repeated.
Posy had always sought her out even then.
The housekeeper mentioned that the dog had attacked its mistress more than once.
The use of the past perfect to describe events that occurred before a particular time in the past are explained in paragraph 4.37.
4.50 If you are using the past perfect to talk about a situation that did not change in the past, you use an adverbial of duration to emphasize the length of time during which it existed.
They weren’t really our aunt and uncle, but we had always known them.
All through those many years he had never ever lost track of my father.
His parents had been married for twelve years when he was born.
4.51 If you are using the past perfect progressive to mention a recent, continuous activity, you can specify when it began.
The Home Office had until now been insisting on giving the officers only ten days to reach a settlement.
Since then, the mother had been living with her daughter.
Adverbials of frequency or duration can also be added for emphasis.
The drive increased the fatigue she had been feeling for hours.
The rain had been pouring all night.
The use of the past perfect progressive to talk about a recent, continuous activity is explained in paragraph 4.38.
Expressing future time
4.52 It is not possible to talk with as much certainty about the future as it is about the present or the past. Any reference you make to future events is therefore usually an expression of what you think might happen or what you intend to happen.
Indicating the future using will
4.53 If you want to say that something is planned to happen, or that you think it is likely to happen in the future, you use the modal will in front of the base form of the verb.
Nancy will arrange it.
These will be dealt with in chapter 7. ‘I will check,’ said Brody.
When will I see them?
What do you think Sally will do?
You will come back, won’t you?
If the subject is I or we, the modal shall is sometimes used instead of will to talk about future events.
I shall do everything I can to help you.
You will stay at home and I shall go to your office. ‘We shall give him some tea,’ Naomi said.
This is not common in modern American English.
The modals will and shall are used in several other ways, usually with some element of future time. For more information, see Chapter 5.
general truths
4.54 If you want to talk about general truths and to say what can be expected to happen if a particular situation arises, you use will.
When peace is available, people will go for it.
An attack of malaria can keep a man off work for three days. He will earn nothing and his family will go hungry.
indicating certainty
4.55 If you are sure that something will happen because arrangements have been made, you can use the future progressive.
I’ll be seeing them when I’ve finished with you.
She’ll be appearing tomorrow and Sunday at the Royal Festival Hall.
I’ll be waiting for you outside.
I understand you’ll be moving into our area soon.
They’ll spoil our picnic. I’ll be wondering all the time what’s happening.
Our people will be going to their country more.
Note that a time adverbial or an adverbial of frequency is normally required with the future progressive.
4.56 If you are referring to something that has not happened yet but will happen before a particular time in the future, you can use the future perfect.
By the time you get to the school, the concert will have finished.
Maybe by the time we get there he’ll already have started.
By then, maybe you’ll have heard from your sister.
Note that you must indicate the specific future time referred to by using a time adverbial or another clause.
indicating duration
4.57 If you want to indicate the duration of an event at a specific time in the future, you can use the future perfect progressive.
By the time the season ends, I will have been playing for fifteen months without a break.
The register will have been running for a year in May.
Note that you need to use a time adverbial to indicate the future time and an adverbial of duration to state how long the event will last.
Other ways of talking about the future
be going to
4.58 If you are stating an intention that something will happen, or if you have some immediate evidence that something will happen fairly soon, you can use be going to followed by an infinitive.
I’m going to explore the neighbourhood.
Evans knows lots of people. He’s going to help me. He’s going to take me there.
You’re going to have a heart attack if you’re not careful.
We’re going to see a change in the law next year.
planned events
4.59 You can use be due to and be about to to refer to planned future events that you expect to happen soon. They are followed by infinitive clauses.
He is due to start as a courier shortly.
The work is due to be started in the summer.
Another 385 people are about to lose their jobs.
Are we about to be taken over by the machine?
Time adverbials with reference to the future
firm plans for the future
4.60 The present simple is used to talk about timetabled or scheduled events. The present progressive is used to state firm plans that you have for the future. A time adverbial is necessary unless you are sure that the hearer or reader knows that you are talking about the future.
My last train leaves Euston at 11.30.
The UN General Assembly opens in New York later this month.
Tomorrow morning we meet up to exchange contracts.
I’m leaving at the end of this week.
My mum is coming to help look after the new baby
vague time reference
4.61 When you want to make a general or vague reference to future time, you use an adverbial that refers to indefinite time.
I’ll drop by sometime.
Sooner or later he’ll ask you to join him there.
In future she’ll have to take sedentary work of some sort.
Here is a list of indefinite time adverbials that are used mainly with future forms:
in future
in the future
one of these days
some day
sometime
sooner or later
tomorrow
4.62 Adverbials that include the word tomorrow are mainly used with references to future time.
We’ll try somewhere else tomorrow.
Shall I come tomorrow night?
He’ll be here the day after tomorrow.
This time tomorrow I’ll be in New York.
next
4.63 Some adverbials that are mainly used with reference to future time include the word next. If you are using a specific day or month such as Saturday or October, you can put next either before or after the day or month. Otherwise, next is placed in front of the time reference.
Next week Michael Hall will be talking about music.
Next summer your crops will be very much better.
I think we’ll definitely be going next year.
Will your accommodation be available next October?
The boots will be ready by Wednesday next.
A post mortem examination will be held on Monday next.
She won’t be able to do it the week after next.
In American English, next is always placed in front of the time reference.
Other uses of verb forms
4.64 So far in this chapter, the commonest and simplest uses of the various verb forms have been dealt with. However, there are also some less common uses of tenses.
Vivid narrative
the present
4.65 Stories are normally told using the past. However, if you want to make a story seem vivid, as if it were happening now, you can use the present simple for actions and states and the present progressive for situations.
There’s a loud explosion behind us. Then I hear Chris giggling. Sylvia is upset.
The helicopter climbs over the frozen wasteland.
Chris is crying hard and others look over from the other tables.
He sits down at his desk chair, reaches for the telephone and dials a number.
Forward planning from a time in the past
4.66 There are several ways of talking about an event that was in the future at a particular time in the past, or that was expected to occur. These are described in the following paragraphs.
events planned in the past
4.67 The past progressive can be used to talk about events planned in the past, especially with some common verbs such as come and go.
Four of them were coming for Sunday lunch.
Her daughter was going to a summer camp tomorrow.
My wife was joining me later with the two children.
4.68 The past simple of be can be used in structures used to express future events, such as be going to, be about to, and be due to. The implication is usually that the expected event has not happened or will not happen. For more information on be going to, see paragraph 5.231.
I thought for a moment that she was going to cry.
He was about to raise his voice at me but stopped himself.
The ship was due to sail the following morning.
Referring to states rather than activities
4.69 Certain verbs are mainly used in the present simple or past simple rather than the present progressive or past progressive. These are called stative verbs. The most common stative verbs are listed in the Reference Section. They include verbs that refer to lasting emotions and mental states, such as love, like, want and know; verbs that refer to the senses, such as see and hear; and verbs that refer to permanent states, such as keep, fit and belong.
Do you like football?
I want to come with you. Where do you keep your keys?
Then I heard a noise.
Generally, these sentences cannot be expressed as, for example, Are you liking football?, I’m wanting to come with you, Where are you keeping your keys? or Then I was hearing a noise.
However, a few of these verbs are sometimes used with present and past progressive forms, particularly in informal spoken English. You can use the progressive form with these verbs when you want to emphasize that a state is new or temporary, or when you want to focus on the present moment.
Rachel is loving one benefit of the job – the new clothes.
I’m liking grapes these days too.
I’m wanting the film to be deliberately old-fashioned.
Some people think this usage is incorrect, and it is usually avoided in formal texts.
Here is a list of verbs that are traditionally considered to be stative verbs, but that are sometimes used with present and past progressive forms:
forget
guess
imagine
lack
like
love
remember
want
You can use the present perfect progressive or past perfect progressive with some stative verbs in both formal and informal contexts.
I’ve been wanting to speak to you about this for some time.
John has been keeping birds for about three years now.
Then she heard it. The sound she had been hearing in her head for weeks.
Using time adverbials to indicate past, present, or future
4.70 In many statements, it is the time adverbial rather than the verb form that carries the time reference.
For example, a common use is to put time adverbials that normally refer to future time with the present simple or present progressive when it is used to refer to future actions. They can also be used with references to the future that are made in the past.
The company celebrates its 50th anniversary this year.
After all, you’re coming back next week.
The farmer just laughed and rode away. So the next week I tried my luck at another farm.
We arranged to meet in three weeks’ time.
The adverbs now, today, tonight, and expressions involving this refer to a period of time that includes the present moment. They are used fairly commonly with all verb forms. This is because an event can be located before, during, or after the time specified by the verb form.
I was now in a Scottish regiment.
Your boss will now have no alternative but to go to his superiors and explain the situation.
One of my children wrote to me today.
I will ski no more today.
It’s dark today. ‘I went to the doctor this morning,’ she said.
He won’t be able to fight this Friday.
I’m doing my ironing this afternoon.
referring to an earlier or a later time
4.71 If you want to refer to time that follows a particular event or period of time, you use an adverb such as soon or later. You can use an adverb such as beforehand or earlier to refer to time that preceded a particular period of time or an event.
Sita was delighted with the house and soon began to look on it as home.
It’ll have to be replaced soon.
He later settled in Peddle, a small town near Grahamstown.
I’ll explain later.
I was very nervous beforehand.
You’ll be having a bath and going to the hairdresser’s beforehand.
She had seen him only five hours earlier.
This type of time reference is common with past and future forms. It is sometimes used with present forms when they are used to refer to past, future, or habitual actions.
Sometimes I know beforehand what I’m going to talk about.
I remember the next day at school going round asking the boys if they’d ever seen a ghost.
But afterwards, as you read on, you relate back to it.
Here is a list of adverbials that are used to refer to time in a relative way:
afterwards
at once
before long
eventually
finally
immediately
in a moment
instantly
later
later on
presently
shortly
soon
suddenly
within minutes
within the hour
~
the next day
the next week
the next month
the next year
the following day
the following week
the following month
the following year
the day after
the week after
the month after
the year after
~
beforehand
early
earlier
earlier on
in advance
late
one day
on time
punctually
Note that in this list presently means soon.
You can use early to show that something happens before the expected or planned time, and late to indicate that it happens after that time. On time and punctually are used to show that something happens at the planned time.
These adverbs come after the verb or at the end of the clause.
Tired out, he had gone to bed early.
If you get to work early, you can get a lot done.
He had come to the political arena late, at the age of 62.
We went quite late in the afternoon.
If Atkinson phoned on time, he’d be out of the house in well under an hour.
He arrived punctually.
With early and late you can also use the comparative forms earlier and later.
I woke earlier than usual.
Later, the dealer saw that it had been sold.
Note that early, late, and on time are also used after linking verbs.
The door bell rang. Barbara was appalled. ‘They’re early.’
The Paris train was slightly late.
What time is it now? This bus is usually on time.
For more information on linking verbs, see paragraphs 3.126 to 3.181.
4.72 You can also specify a time by relating it to an event, using a qualifying expression or a relative clause after the time adverbial.
I didn’t sleep well the night before the prosecution.
I called him the day I got back.
4.73 You can also use some prepositions to relate events to each other, or to particular periods of time. These prepositions are listed in paragraph 4.100, and there is a full explanation in paragraphs 4.103 to 4.108.
After the war, he returned to teaching.
Joseph had been married prior to his marriage to Mary.
Wages have fallen during the last two months.
necessary time
4.74 If you want to refer to a necessary time, beyond which an event will no longer be relevant, useful, or successful, you can use in time.
I had to walk fast to reach the restaurant in time.
He leapt back, in time to dodge the train.
If something happens before the necessary time, you can use too early, and if it happens after the necessary time, you can use too late.
Today they grow up too early.
It’s much too early to assess the community service scheme.
They arrived too late for the information to be any good.
It’s too late to change that now.
previously mentioned time
4.75 If the time you are referring to in the past or future has already been mentioned, you can use the adverb then.
We kept three monkeys then.
We were all so patriotic then.
It’ll be too late then.
To be more specific, you can use that with the name of a day, month, season, and so on, or with a general time word.
William didn’t come in that Tuesday.
So many people will be pursuing other activities that night.
Emphasizing the unexpected: continuing, stopping, or not happening
4.76 If you want to comment on the existence of the relationship between past, present, and future situations, you can use one of the following adverbials:
already
any longer
any more
as yet
no longer
so far
still
up till now
up to now
yet
still for existing situations
4.77 If you want to say that a situation exists up to the present time, you use still. If you use be as a main verb or an auxiliary verb, you put still after be or the auxiliary. If you use any simple verb except be you put still in front of the verb. Still often suggests that the continuation of the situation is surprising or undesirable.
It’s a marvel that I’m still alive to tell the tale.
Male prejudice still exists in certain quarters.
Years had passed and they were still paying off their debts.
In negative statements that use the n’t contraction, still is placed in front of be or the auxiliary.
We’ve been working on it for over two years now. And it still isn’t finished.
We still don’t know where we’re going.
still for expected situations
4.78 You can also use still in front of a to-infinitive to say that something has not happened yet, although it is expected to, or you feel that it should.
The Government had still to agree on the provisions of the bill.
The problems were still to come.
There are many other questions still to be answered.
Still is not used in negative statements in this way; see paragraph 4.79 for a similar use of yet.
yet for expected situations
4.79 If you want to indicate that something has not happened up to the present time, but is likely to happen in the future, you use yet with a negative. Yet usually comes at the end of the clause.
We don’t know the terms yet.
I haven’t set any work yet. I suppose I shall some day.
They haven’t heard yet.
If you want to sound more emphatic, you can put yet before a simple verb or after the auxiliary and negative word.
No one yet knows exactly what it means.
Her style had not yet matured.
Yet can also be used in questions, where it is usually put at the end of the clause.
Has she had the baby yet?
Has Mr. Harris arrived yet?
4.80 You can also use yet in affirmative statements to say that something that is expected has not happened up to the present time. In this case, yet is followed by a to-infinitive clause.
The true history of art in post-war America is yet to be written.
He had yet to attempt to put principles into practice.
4.81 Yet is also used in affirmative statements with superlatives to show that the statement applies up to the present, but may not apply in the future. Yet normally comes at the end of the clause.
This is the best museum we’ve visited yet.
Mr. Fowler said that February had produced the best results yet.
This is the biggest and best version yet.
likely change
4.82 If you want to say that a situation that has existed up to the present time may change in the future, you can use as yet, so far, up to now, or up till now. They are normally placed either at the beginning or the end of the clause. They are also occasionally placed after an auxiliary verb.
As yet, no group has claimed responsibility for the attack.
Only Mother knows as yet.
So far, the terms of the treaty have been carried out according to schedule.
You’ve done well so far, Mrs Rutland.
Up till now, the most extraordinary remark I remember was made by you. …something he had up to now been reluctant to provide.
It’s been quiet so far.
You haven’t once up till now come into real contact with our authorities.
Note that these expressions can be used in affirmative and negative statements.
a past situation that has stopped existing
4.83 If you want to say that a past situation does not exist in the present, you can use no longer, or a negative with any longer or any more.
She was no longer content with a handful of coins.
They didn’t know any longer what was funny and what was entertaining.
They don’t live together any more.
already for emphasizing occurrence
4.84 If you want to emphasize that a situation exists, rather than not yet having occurred, you use already. It is usually put in front of any simple verb except be, or after be as a main verb, or following an auxiliary verb.
The energy already exists in the ground.
Senegal already has a well established film industry.
He was just a year younger than Rudolph, but was already as tall and much stockier.
My watch says nine o’clock. And it’s already too hot to sleep.
We have already advertised your post in the papers.
Britain is already exporting a little coal.
You can put already at the beginning or the end of the clause for emphasis.
Already robberies and lootings have increased.
I was happy for her; she looked better already.
Already is not often used with the past simple, except with the verbs be, have, and know.
Note that already cannot normally be used in negative statements, but can be used in negative if-clauses, negative questions, and relative clauses.
Refer certain types of death to the coroner if this has not already been done.
Those who have not already left are being advised to do so.
What does it show us that we haven’t already felt?
Time adverbials and prepositional phrases
Specific times
4.85 Specific time adverbials are used after the verb be when you want to state the current time, day, or year.
‘Well what time is it now?’ – ‘It’s one o’clock’.
It was a perfect May morning.
Six weeks isn’t all that long ago, it’s January.
They are also often used in prepositional phrases to say when something happened, or when it is expected to happen.
I got there at about 8 o’clock.
The submarine caught fire on Friday morning.
That train gets in at 1800 hours.
clock times
4.86 Clock times are usually expressed in terms of hours and parts of an hour or minutes, for example one o’clock, five minutes past one, one twenty, half past one. The day is usually divided into two sets of twelve hours, so it is sometimes necessary to specify which set you mean by adding a.m., p.m., or a prepositional phrase such as in the morning or in the evening.
In many official contexts, a twenty-four hour system is used.
If the hour is known, only the minutes are specified: five past, ten to, quarter to, half past and so on. Midday and noon are occasionally used.
times of the day
4.87 The most frequently used words for periods of the day are morning, afternoon, evening, and night. There are also some words that refer to the rising and setting of the sun, such as dusk and sunset, and others that refer to mealtimes.
On a warm, cloudy evening, Colin went down to the river.
They seem to be working from dawn to dusk.
Most of the trouble comes outside the classroom, at break-time and dinnertime.
Here is a list of words that are used to talk about periods of the day:
morning
afternoon
evening
night
~
dawn
daybreak
first light
sunrise
dusk
sunset
nightfall
~
daytime
night-time
breakfast-time
break-time
lunchtime
teatime
dinnertime
suppertime
bedtime
naming days
4.88 The seven days of the week are proper nouns:
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Saturday and Sunday are often referred to as the weekend, and the other days as weekdays.
A few days in the year have special names, for example:
New Year’s Day
Valentine’s Day
Presidents’ Day
Good Friday
Easter Monday
Fourth of July
Labor Day
Halloween
Thanksgiving
Christmas Eve
Christmas Day
Boxing Day
New Year’s Eve
You can also name a day by giving its date using an ordinal number.
‘When does your term end?’ – ‘First of July’.
The Grand Prix is to be held here on the 18th July.
Her season of films continues until October the ninth.
You can omit the month if it is clear from the context which month you are referring to.
So Monday will be the seventeenth.
St Valentine’s Day is on the fourteenth.
There is more information about ordinals in the Reference Section.
months, seasons, and dates
4.89 The twelve months of the year are proper nouns:
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
There are four seasons: spring, summer, autumn (usually fall in American English) and winter. Springtime, summertime, and wintertime are also used.
Some periods of the year have special names; for example, Christmas, Easter, and the New Year.
years, decades, and centuries
4.90 Years are referred to in English by numbers. When you are speaking, you refer to years before 2000 as nineteen sixty-seven (1967), or seventeen hundered (1700), for example.
…the eleventh of January, 1967.
A second conference was held in February 1988.
My mother died in 1945.
When you are speaking, you refer to years between 2000 and 2009 as two thousand (2000) or two thousand and eight (2008), for example.
Years after 2009 are said as either two thousand and ten (2010), two thousand and eleven (2011), etc. or as twenty ten (2010), twenty eleven (2011), etc.
To refer to periods longer than a year, decades (ten years) and centuries (a hundred years) are used. Decades start with a year ending in zero and finish with a year ending in nine: the 1960s (1960 to 1969), the 1820s (1820 to 1829). If the century is already known, it can be omitted: the 20s, the twenties, the Twenties.
To be more specific, for example in historical dates, AD is added before or after the numbers for years or centuries after Jesus is believed to have been born: 1650 AD, AD 1650, AD 1650-53, 1650-53 AD. Some writers who prefer to avoid referring to religion use CE, which stands for the Common Era: 1650 CE.
BC (which stands for Before Christ) is added after the numbers for years or centuries before Jesus is believed to have been born: 1500 BC, 15–1200 BC. An alternative abbreviation that does not refer to religion is BCE, which stands for Before the Common Era.
Centuries start with a year ending in two zeroes and finish with a year ending in two nines. Ordinals are used to refer to them. The first century was from 0 AD to 99 AD, the second century was 100–199 AD, and so on, so the period 1800–1899 AD was the nineteenth century and the current century is the twenty-first century (2000–2099 AD). Centuries can also be written using numbers: the 21st century.
at for specific times
4.91 If you want to say when something happens, you use at with clock times, periods of the year, and periods of the day except for morning, evening, afternoon, and daytime.
Our train went at 2.25.
I got up at eight o’clock.
The train should arrive at a quarter to one.
We go to church at Easter and Christmas.
I went down and fetched her back at the weekend.
On Tuesday evening, just at dusk, Brody had received an anonymous phone call.
He regarded it as his duty to come and read to me at bedtime.
At night we kept them shut up in a wire enclosure.
Let the fire burn out now. Who would see smoke at night-time anyway?
You can also use at with time and similar words such as moment and juncture and with units of clock time such as hour and minute.
General de Gaulle duly attended the military ceremony at the appointed time.
It was at this juncture that his luck temporarily deserted him.
If I could have done it at that minute I would have killed him.
There were no lights at this hour, and roads, bungalows, and gardens lay quiet.
at for relating events
4.92 You can also use at when you want to relate the time of one event to another event such as a party, journey, election, and so on.
I had first met Kruger at a party at the British Embassy.
She represented the Association at the annual meeting of the American Medical Association in Chicago.
It is to be reopened at the annual conference in three weeks’ time.
4.93 At is also used with ages, stages of development, and points within a larger period of time.
At the age of twenty, she married another Spanish dancer.
He left school at seventeen.
At an early stage of the war the British Government began recruiting a team of top mathematicians and electronics experts.
We were due to return to the United Kingdom at the beginning of March.
in for periods of time
4.94 If you want to mention the period of time in which something happens, you use in with centuries, years, seasons, months, and the periods of the day morning, afternoon, and evening. You also use in with daytime and night-time.
In the sixteenth century there were three tennis courts.
It’s true that we expected a great deal in the sixties.
Americans visiting Sweden in the early 1950s were astounded by its cleanliness.
If you were to go on holiday on the continent in wintertime what sport could you take part in?
To be in Cornwall at any time is a pleasure; to be here in summer is a bonus.
It’s a lot cooler in the autumn.
She will preside over the annual meeting of the Court in December.
In September I travelled to California to see the finished film.
I’ll ring the agent in the morning.
Well, she does come in to clean the rooms in the day-time.
Note that if morning, afternoon, and evening are used with a modifier or a following phrase or clause, you use on. See paragraph 4.96 for details.
in for specific time
4.95 In is also used when you want to specify a period of time, minutes, hours, days, and so on, using an ordinal.
Vehicle sales in the first eight months of the year have plunged by 24.4 per cent. …in the early hours of the morning.
In is also used with some other nouns referring to events and periods of time.
My father was killed in the war.
Everyone does unusual jobs in wartime.
In winter, we tend to get up later.
Two people came to check my room in my absence.
Ordinals are explained in paragraphs 2.232 to 2.239.
on for short periods of time
4.96 If you want to mention the day when something happens, you use on. You can do this with named days, with days referred to by ordinals, and with days referred to by a special term such as birthday or anniversary.
I’ll send the cheque round on Monday.
Everybody went to church on Christmas Day.
I hear you have bingo on Wednesday.
Pentonville Prison was set up on Boxing Day, 1842.
He was born on 3 April 1925 at 40 Grosvenor Road. …the grey suit Elsa had bought for him on his birthday.
Many of Eisenhower’s most cautious commanders were even prepared to risk attack on the eighth or ninth. …addressing Parliament on the 36th anniversary of his country’s independence.
You can use the with named days for emphasis or contrast, and a to indicate any day of that name.
He died on the Friday and was buried on the Sunday.
We get a lot of calls on a Friday.
You also use on with morning, afternoon, evening, and night when they are modified or when they are followed by extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause.
…at 2.30 p.m.
on a calm afternoon.
There was another important opening on the same evening.
Tickets will be available on the morning of the performance.
It’s terribly good of you to turn out on a night like this.
on for longer periods of time
4.97 On is also used with words referring to travel such as journey, trip, voyage, flight, and way to say when something happened.
But on that journey, for the first time, Luce’s faith in the eventual outcome was shaken.
Eileen was accompanying her father to visit friends made on a camping trip the year before.
on for subsequent events
4.98 On can be used in a slightly formal way with nouns and -ing forms referring to actions or activities to show that one event occurs after another.
I shall bring the remaining seven hundred pounds on my return in eleven days.
ordering of time adverbials
4.99 On the few occasions when people have to specify a time and date exactly, for example in legal English or formal documents, the usual order is: clock time, followed by period of day, day of the week, and date.
…at eight o’clock on the morning of 29 October 1618. …on the night of Thursday July 16.
Non-specific times
approximate times
4.100 If you want to be less precise about when something happened, you can use a word like around or about.
At about four o’clock in the morning, we were awoken by a noise.
The device that exploded at around midnight on Wednesday severely damaged the fourth-floor bar.
The supply of servants continued until about 1950, then abruptly dried up.
The attack began shortly before dawn.
Here is a list of words and expressions that you can use if you want to be less precise about when something happened:
about
almost
around
just after
just before
nearly
round about
shortly after
shortly before
soon after
thereabouts
About, almost, around, nearly, and round about are usually used with clock times or years. With about, around, and round about, the preposition at can often be omitted in informal English.
Then quite suddenly, round about midday, my mood began to change.
About nine o’clock he went out to the kitchen.
It is also possible to use prepositions to relate events to less specific points or periods of time, for example when the exact time of an event is not known, or when events happen gradually, continuously, or several times.
He developed central chest pain during the night.
For, also over the summer, his book had come out.
Here is a list of prepositions that are used to relate events to a non-specific time:
after
before
by
during
following
over
prior to
BE CAREFUL
4.101 Almost or nearly can only be used after the verb be.
4.102 You can also use or thereabouts after the time adverbial.
Back in 1975 or thereabouts someone lent me an article about education. …at four o’clock or thereabouts.
during for periods of time
4.103 During can be used instead of in with periods of the day, months, seasons, years, decades, and centuries.
We try to keep people informed by post during September.
She heated the place during the winter with a huge wood furnace.
During 1973 an Anti-Imperialist Alliance was formed.
During the Sixties various levies were imposed.
During the seventh century incendiary weapons were invented.
They used to spend the whole Sunday at chapel but most of them behaved shockingly during the week.
4.104 During is used with most event nouns to show that one event takes place while another is occurring.
During his stay in prison, he has written many essays and poems. …trying to boost police morale during a heated battle with rioters.
The young princes were protected from press intrusion during their education.
Some families live in the kitchen during a power cut.
During the journey I came to like and respect them.
BE CAREFUL
4.105 During the week means on weekdays, in contrast to the weekend.
over for events
4.106 Over can be used with winter, summer, and special periods of the year to show that an event occurred throughout the period or at an unspecified time during it.
…to help keep their families going over the winter.
My friends had a marvellous time over the New Year.
Over is also used when referring to a period of time immediately before or after the time of speaking or the time being talked about.
The number will increase considerably over the next decade.
They have been doing all they can over the past twenty-four hours.
We packed up the things I had accumulated over the last four years.
Over can be used with meals and items of food or drink to show that something happens while people are eating or drinking.
Davis said he wanted to read it over lunch.
Can we discuss it over a cup of coffee?
relating events and times
4.107 You can also be more general by stating the relationship between an event and a period of time or specific point in time.
Before, prior to, and after are used to relate events to a time.
She gets up before six.
If you’re stuck, come back and see me before Thursday. …the construction of warships by the major powers prior to 1914.
City Music Hall is going to close down after Easter.
He will announce his plans after the holidays.
They can also be used to relate one event to another.
I was in a bank for a while before the war.
She gave me much helpful advice prior to my visit to Turkey.
Jack left after breakfast.
He was killed in a car accident four years after their marriage.
After much discussion, they had decided to take the coin to a jeweller.
Following, previous to and subsequent to can also be used with events.
He has regained consciousness following a stroke.
He suggests that Ross was prompted previous to the parade.
The testimony and description of one witness would be supplied prior to the interview; those of the other two subsequent to it.
order of events
4.108 Before and after can also be used to show the order of events when the same person does two actions or two people do the same action.
I should have talked about that before anything else.
He knew Nell would probably be home before him.
I do the floor after the washing-up.
You can also sometimes use earlier than or later than.
Smiling develops earlier than laughing.
events that happen at the same time
4.109 To indicate that two or more events happen at the same time, the adverbs together and simultaneously, or the adverbials at the same time and at once can be used:
Everything had happened together.
His fear and his hate grew simultaneously.
Can you love two women at the same time?
I can’t be everywhere at once.
linking adverbs
4.110 You can also show what order things happen in using adverbs such as first, next, and finally. Simultaneously and at the same time are used in a similar way to link clauses. This is dealt with in paragraph 10.53.
by for specific time
4.111 By is used to emphasize that an event occurs at some time before a specific time, but not later. By is also used to indicate that a process is completed or reaches a particular stage not later than a specific time.
By eleven o’clock, Brody was back in his office.
The theory was that by Monday their tempers would have cooled.
By next week, there will be no supplies left.
Do you think we’ll get to the top of this canyon by tomorrow? By now the moon was up.
But by then he was bored with the project.
Extended uses of time adverbials
4.112 Time adverbials can be used after the noun phrase to specify events or periods of time.
I’m afraid the meeting this afternoon exhausted me.
The sudden death of his father on 17 November 1960 was not a surprise. …until I started to recall the years after the Second World War.
No admissions are permitted in the hour before closing time.
Clock times, periods of the day, days of the week, months, dates, seasons, special periods of the year, years, decades, and centuries can be used as modifiers before the noun phrase to specify things.
Every morning he would set off right after the eight o’clock news.
Castle was usually able to catch the six thirty-five train from Euston.
He boiled the kettle for his morning tea.
He learned that he had missed the Monday flight.
I had summer clothes and winter clothes.
Ash had spent the Christmas holidays at Pelham Abbas.
Possessive forms can also be used.
…a discussion of the day’s events.
It was Jim Griffiths, who knew nothing of the morning’s happenings.
The story will appear in tomorrow’s paper.
This week’s batch of government statistics added to the general confusion over the state of the economy.
Frequency and duration
4.113 Here is a list of units of time that are used when you are showing how often something happens, or how long it lasts or takes:
moment
second
minute
hour
day
night
week
fortnight
month
year
decade
century
Fortnight is used only in the singular. Moment is not used with numbers because it does not refer to a precise period of time, so you cannot say for example It took five moments.
Fortnight is not used in American English, where two weeks is used instead.
Words for periods of the day, days of the week, months of the year, and seasons are also used, such as morning, Friday, July, and winter.
Clock times may also be used.
Talking about how frequently something happens
4.114 Some adverbials show approximately how many times something happens:
again and again
a lot
all the time
always
constantly
continually
continuously
ever
frequently
from time to time
hardly ever
infrequently
intermittently
much
never
normally
occasionally
often
over and over
periodically
rarely
regularly
repeatedly
seldom
sometimes
sporadically
usually
I never did my homework on time.
Sometimes I wish I was back in Africa.
We were always being sent home.
He laughed a lot.
Never is a negative adverb.
She never goes abroad.
Ever is only used in questions, negative clauses, and if-clauses.
Have you ever been to a concert?
Much is usually used with not.
The men didn’t talk much to each other.
Some adverbs of frequency such as often and frequently can also be used in the comparative and superlative.
Disasters can be prevented more often than in the past.
I preached much more often than that.
They cried for their mothers less often than might have been expected. …the mistakes that we make most frequently.
USAGE NOTE
4.115 To show how many times something happens, you can use a specific number, several, or many followed by times.
We had to ask three times.
It’s an experience I’ve repeated many times since.
He carefully aimed his rifle and fired several times.
If the number you are using is one you use once (not one time) in this structure. If it is two you can use twice.
I’ve been out with him once, that’s all.
The car broke down twice.
If something happens regularly, you can say how many times it happens within a period of time by adding a and a word referring to a period of time.
The group met once a week.
You only have a meal three times a day.
The committee meets twice a year.
You can also use an adverb of frequency such as once with a unit of time preceded by every to say that something happens a specified number of times regularly within that unit of time.
The average Briton moves house once every seven and a half years.
We meet twice every Sunday.
Three times every day, he would come to the kiosk to check that we were all right.
If an event happens regularly during a specific period of the day, you can use the period of day instead of times:
I used to go in three mornings a week.
He was going out five nights a week.
A regular rate or quantity can also be expressed by adding a and a general time word. Per is sometimes used instead of a, especially in technical contexts.
He earns about £1000 a week.
I was only getting three hours of sleep a night. …rising upwards at the rate of 300 feet per second.
He hurtles through the air at 600 miles per hour.
estimating frequency
4.116 If you want to be less precise about how frequently something happens, you can use one of the following words or expressions: almost, about, nearly, or so, or less, and or more.
You can use almost and about in front of every.
In the last month of her pregnancy, we went out almost every evening.
You can also use almost in front of -ly time adverbs derived from general time words, for example monthly, weekly and daily.
Small scale confrontations occur almost daily in many states.
Or so, or less, and or more are used after frequency expressions, but not after adverbs of frequency.
Every hour or so, my shoulders would tighten.
If the delay is two hours or more, the whole cost of the journey should be refunded.
regular intervals
4.117 If you want to say that something happens at regular intervals, you can use every followed by either a general or a specific unit of time. Each is sometimes used instead of every.
We’ll go hunting every day.
You get a lump sum and you get a pension each week.
Some people write out a new address book every January.
Every can also be used with a number and the plural of the unit of time.
Every five minutes the phone would ring.
The regular or average rate or quantity of something can also be expressed using every and each.
One fighter jet was shot down every hour. …the 300,000 garments the factory produces each year.
USAGE NOTE
4.118 If something happens during one period of time but not during the next period, then happens again during the next, and so on, you can use every other followed by a unit of time or a specific time word. Every second is sometimes used instead of every other.
We wrote to our parents every other day.
Their local committees are usually held every other month.
He used to come and take them out every other Sunday.
It seemed easier to shave only every second day.
Prepositional phrases with alternate and a plural time word can also be used.
On alternate Sunday nights, I tell the younger children a story.
Just do some exercises on alternate days at first.
particular occurrences of an event
4.119 The adverbs first, next, and last are used to show the stage at which an event takes place.
First, the first time, and for the first time can indicate the first occurrence of an event.
He was, I think, in his early sixties when I first encountered him.
They had seen each other first a week before, outside this hotel. …the tactical war games which were first fought in Ancient Greece.
It rained heavily twice while I was out.
The first time I sheltered under a tree, but the second time I walked through it.
For the first time Anne Marie felt frightened.
The repetition of an event or situation that has not happened for a long time can be indicated by using for the first time with in and the plural form of a general time word.
He was happy and relaxed for the first time in years.
A future occurrence is indicated by next time or the next time.
Don’t do it again. I might not forgive you next time.
The next time I come here, I’m going to be better.
The use of next with statements referring to the future is described in paragraph 4.63.
The most recent occurrence of an event can be indicated by using last as an adverb or the noun phrases last time or the last time.
He seemed to have grown a lot since he last wore it.
He could not remember when he had last eaten.
When did you last see him?
You did so well last time.
The final occurrence can be indicated by for the last time.
For the last time he waved to the three friends who watched from above.
The use of last in statements about the past is described in paragraph 4.41.
You can also use before, again, and noun phrases with an ordinal and time to say whether an event is a first occurrence, or one that has happened before.
You can use before with a perfect form of a verb to show whether something is happening for the first time or whether it is a repeated occurrence.
I’ve never been in a policeman’s house before.
He’s done it before.
The adverb again is used to talk about a second or subsequent occurrence of an event. Ordinals can be used with time, in noun phrases or in more formal prepositional phrases with for, to specify a particular occurrence of a repeated event.
Someone rang the front door bell. He stood and listened and heard it ring again and then a third time. We have no reliable information about that yet, he found himself saying for the third time.
-ly time adverbs
4.120 Some general time words can be changed into adverbs by adding -ly and used to show the frequency of an event.
hourly
daily
weekly
fortnightly
monthly
quarterly
yearly
Note the spelling of daily. The adverb annually and the adjective annual have the same meaning as yearly.
It was suggested that we give each child an allowance yearly or monthly to cover all he or she spends.
She phones me up hourly.
The same words can be used as adjectives.
To this, we add a yearly allowance of £65.00 towards repairs.
The media gave us hourly updates.
They had a long-standing commitment to making a weekly cash payment to mothers.
prepositional phrases
4.121 Prepositional phrases with plural forms of specific time words can also be used to indicate frequency. For example, on is used with days of the week; during and at are used with weekends.
We’ve had teaching practice on Tuesdays and lectures on Thursdays.
She does not need help with the children during weekends.
We see each other at weekends.
In American English, and in informal British English, you can use the plural forms of specific time words without on.
She only works Wednesdays and Fridays.
Thursday mornings I volunteer at the local senior center.
His radio program broadcasts Friday nights at nine.
In is used with periods of the day, except night.
I can’t work full time. I only work in the afternoons, I have lectures in the mornings.
Harry Truman loved to sit in an old rocking chair in the evenings and face the lawns behind the White House.
development and regular occurrence
4.122 To show that something develops gradually, or happens at regular intervals, you can use a general time word with by followed by the same general time word.
She was getting older year by year, and lonelier, and more ridiculous.
Millions of citizens follow, day by day, the unfolding of the drama.
Gradual development can also be indicated by the adverbs increasingly and progressively.
…the computers and information banks on which our world will increasingly depend.
His conduct became increasingly eccentric.
As disposable income rises, people become progressively less concerned with price.
Talking about how long something lasts
4.123 The following section explains ways of showing how long something lasts or takes.
Some adverbs and adverbial expressions are used to show how long an event or state lasts. Here is a list of adverbs that are used to show duration:
always
briefly
forever
indefinitely
long
overnight
permanently
temporarily
She glanced briefly at Lucas Simmonds.
You won’t live forever.
The gates are kept permanently closed.
Briefly and permanently can be used in the comparative.
This new revelation had much the same outward effect, though more briefly.
This is something I would like to do more permanently.
The form long is only used as an adverb in negatives and questions.
I haven’t been in England long.
How long does it take on the train?
In affirmative clauses, it is used in expressions such as a long time and prepositional phrases such as for a long time. However, the comparative and superlative forms longer and longest can be used in affirmative and negative clauses.
Then of course you’ll go with Parry. She’s been your friend longer.
I’ve been thinking about it a lot longer than you.
She remained the longest.
In affirmative and negative if-clauses, you can use for long.
If she’s away for long we won’t be able to wait.
prepositional phrases
4.124 However, prepositional phrases are more commonly used. The following prepositions are used in adverbials of duration:
after
before
for
from
in
since
throughout
to
until
The prepositional object can be a noun phrase referring to a specific period of time. This can be in the singular after the determiner a (or one for emphasis), or in the plural after a number or quantity expression.
The noun phrase can also refer to an indefinite period, for example expressions such as a long time, a short while, a while, or ages, or plural time words such as hours.
for for length of time
4.125 The preposition for indicates how long something continues to happen.
Is he still thinking of going away to Italy for a month?
The initial battle continued for an hour.
This precious happy time lasted for a month or two.
For the next week, she did not contact him.
We were married for fifteen years.
I didn’t speak for a long time.
She would have liked to sit for a while and think.
You use the instead of a when the period of time is already known, with seasons, periods of the day, and weekend, or when you modify the time word with words like past, coming, following, next, last, or an ordinal.
Tell Aunt Elizabeth you’re off for the day.
We’ve been living together for the past year.
For the first month or two I was bullied constantly.
For the next few days he had to stay in bed.
Put them in cold storage for the winter.
I said I’m off to Brighton for the weekend.
Remember that you do not use a determiner with special periods of the year.
At least come for Christmas.
4.126 For can also be used with specific time adverbials to show the time when something is to be used, not how long it takes or lasts.
Everything was placed exactly where I wanted it for the morning.
4.127 For can also be used in negative statements when you want to say that something need not or will not happen until a certain period of time has passed. Yet is often added.
It won’t be ready to sail for another three weeks.
I don’t have to decide for a month yet.
for for emphasis
4.128 For is used with a plural noun phrase to emphasize how long something lasts.
Settlers have been coming here for centuries.
I don’t think he’s practised much for years.
I’ve been asking you about these doors for months.
USAGE NOTE
4.129 You can also use a general time word with after followed by the same general time word to emphasize that a state continues for a long time or that an action is repeated continuously for a long time.
I wondered what kept her in Paris decade after decade.
They can go on making losses, year after year, without fearing that they will go bust.
in and within for end of a period
4.130 In is used to indicate that something happens or will happen before the end of a certain period of time. In more formal English within is used.
Can we get to the airport in an hour?
That coat must have cost you more than I earn in a year.
The face of a city can change completely in a year.
They should get the job finished within a few days.
4.131 In and within are also used to show that something only took or takes a short time.
The clouds evaporated in seconds.
What an expert can do in minutes may take you hours to accomplish.
Within a few months, the barnyard had been abandoned.
for and in with general or specific time
4.132 For and in can be used in negative statements to say that something does not happen during a period of time. You can use them in this way with specific units of time, and with more general time references.
He hadn’t had a proper night’s sleep for a month.
I haven’t seen a chart for forty years!
The team had not heard from Stabler in a month.
He hasn’t slept in a month.
I haven’t seen him for years.
Let’s have a dinner party. We haven’t had one in years.
I haven’t fired a gun in years.
noun phrases that express duration
4.133 Note that with the verbs last, wait, and stay, which have duration as part of their meaning, the adverbial can be a noun phrase instead of a prepositional phrase with for.
The campaign lasts four weeks at most.
His speech lasted for exactly 14 and a half minutes. ‘Wait a minute,’ the voice said.
He stayed a month, five weeks, six weeks.
The verbs take and spend can also indicate duration but the adverbial can only be a noun phrase.
It took me a month to lose that feeling of being a spectator.
What once took a century now took only ten months.
He spent five minutes washing and shaving.
approximate duration
4.134 If you want to be less precise about how long something lasts, you can use one of the following words or expressions: about, almost, nearly, around, more than, less than, and so on.
They’ve lived there for more than thirty years.
They have not been allowed to form unions for almost a decade.
The three of us travelled around together for about a month that summer.
In less than a year, I learned enough Latin to pass the entrance exam.
He had been in command of HMS Churchill for nearly a year.
When you make a general statement about the duration of something, you can indicate the maximum period of time that it will last or take by using up to.
Refresher training for up to one month each year was the rule for all.
You can also use expressions such as or so, or more, or less, and or thereabouts to make the duration less specific.
He has been writing about tennis and golf for forty years or so.
Our species probably practised it for a million years or more. …hopes which have prevailed so strongly for a century or more.
Almost, about, nearly, and thereabouts are also used when talking about when an event takes place; see paragraph 4.100 for details of this.
Talking about the whole of a period
4.135 If you want to emphasize that something lasts for the whole of a period of time, you can use all as a determiner with many general time words.
‘I’ve been wanting to do this all day,’ she said.
I’ve been here all night.
They said you were out all afternoon.
We’ve not seen them all summer.
You can also use whole as a modifier in front of a general time word.
It took me the whole of my first year to adjust. …scientists who are monitoring food safety the whole time. …people who have not worked for a whole year.
You can also use all through, right through, and throughout with the and many general time words, or with a specific decade, year, month, or special period.
Discussions and arguments continued all through the day.
Right through the summer months they are rarely out of sight.
Throughout the Sixties, man’s first voyage to other worlds came closer.
Words referring to events are sometimes used instead of the time words to emphasize that something happened for the entire duration of the event.
He wore an expression of angry contempt throughout the interrogation.
A patient reported a dream that had recurred throughout her life.
All through the cruelly long journey home, he lay utterly motionless.
4.136 If you want to emphasize that something happens all the time, you can list periods of the day or seasons of the year, or mention contrasting ones.
…people coming in morning, noon, and night.
I’ve worn the same suit summer, winter, autumn and spring, for five years.
Thousands of slave labourers worked night and day to build the fortifications.
Ten gardeners used to work this land, winter and summer.
Each family was filmed 24/7 for six weeks.
24/7 is an abbreviation of 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. It is used in informal English and in journalism.
Showing the start or end of a period
start time
4.137 You can also show how long a situation lasts by using prepositional phrases to give the time when it begins or the time when it ends, or both.
If you want to talk about a situation that began in the past and is continuing now, or to consider a period of it from a time in the past to the present, you use the preposition since with a time adverbial or an event to show when the situation began. The verb is in the present perfect.
I’ve been here since twelve o’clock.
I haven’t had a new customer in here since Sunday.
Since January, there hasn’t been any more trouble.
I haven’t been out since Christmas.
The situation has not changed since 2001.
There has been no word of my friend since the revolution.
Since is also used to indicate the beginning of situations that ended in the past. The verb is in the past perfect.
I’d been working in London since January at a firm called Kendalls.
He hadn’t prayed once since the morning.
I’d only had two sandwiches since breakfast.
Since can also be used with other prepositional phrases that indicate a point in time.
I haven’t seen you since before the summer.
The noun phrase after since can sometimes refer to a person or thing rather than a time or event, especially when used with a superlative, first, or only, or with a negative.
They hadn’t seen each other since Majorca.
I have never had another dog since Jonnie.
Ever since London, I’ve been working towards this.
4.138 The time when a situation began can also be shown by using the preposition from and adding the adverb on or onwards. The noun phrase can be a date, an event, or a period. The verb can be in the past simple or in a perfect form.
…the history of British industry from the mid sixties on.
From the eighteenth century on, great private palaces went up.
But from the mid-1960s onwards the rate of public welfare spending has tended to accelerate.
The family size starts to influence development from birth.
They never perceived that they themselves had forced women into this role from childhood. …the guide who had been with us from the beginning.
4.139 You can also use the preposition after to give the time when a situation began.
They don’t let anybody in after six o’clock.
After 1929 I concentrated on canvas work.
He’d have a number of boys to help him through the summertime but after October he’d just have the one.
end time
4.140 Similarly, if you want to say that a situation continues for some time and then stops, you can indicate the time when it stops by using the preposition until with a time adverbial or an event.
The school was kept open until ten o’clock five nights a week.
They danced and laughed and talked until dawn.
She walked back again and sat in her room until dinner.
I’ve just discovered she’s only here until Sunday.
He had been willing to wait until the following summer.
Until the end of the 18th century little had been known about Persia.
Until that meeting, most of us knew very little about him.
Until can also be used in negative clauses to say that something did not or will not happen before a particular time.
We won’t get them until September.
My plane does not leave until tomorrow morning.
Until is also used with other prepositional phrases that indicate a point in time.
I decided to wait until after Easter to visit John.
Some people use till instead of until, especially in informal English.
Sometimes I lie in bed till nine o’clock.
Up to and up till are also sometimes used, mainly before now and then.
Up to now, I have been happy with his work.
It was something he had never even considered up till now.
I had a three-wheel bike up to a few years ago but it got harder and harder to push it along.
Up to 1989, growth averaged 1 per cent.
4.141 You can also use the preposition before to indicate when a situation ends.
Before 1716 Cheltenham had been a small market town.
start and end times
4.142 The duration of a situation or event can be shown by saying when it begins and when it ends. You can use from to show when it begins and to, till, or until to show when it ends.
The Blitz on London began with nightly bombings from 7 September to 2 November.
They are active in the line from about January until October.
They seem to be working from dawn till dusk.
You can also use between and and instead of from and to.
The car is usually in the garage between Sunday and Thursday in winter.
In American English, through is often placed between the two times:
The chat show goes out midnight through six a.m.
If you are using figures to refer to two times or years, you can separate them with a dash, instead of using from and to.
…open 10–5 weekdays, 10–6 Saturdays and 2–6 Sundays.
Using time expressions to modify nouns
4.143 You can also use time expressions involving a cardinal number and a general time word to modify nouns. Note that an apostrophe is added to the time word.
Four of those were sentenced to 15 days’ detention.
They want to take on staff with two years’ experience.
This use of cardinal numbers is described in paragraph 2.231.
4.144 Time expressions are also used as compound adjectives to modify countable nouns.
They all have to start off with a six-month course in German.
I arrived at the University for a three-month stint as a visiting lecturer.
Compound adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.94 to 2.102.