Varying the message: modals, negatives, and ways of forming sentences - English Grammar

English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

5. Varying the message: modals, negatives, and ways of forming sentences

5.1 This chapter deals with three different ways in which the meaning of a sentence can be varied, by altering the order of words or by adding other words to the verb phrase.

Paragraphs 5.2 to 5.46 explain how to form statements, questions, orders, and suggestions.

Paragraphs 5.47 to 5.91 explain how negative words are used to talk about the opposite of something or the absence of something.

Paragraphs 5.92 to 5.256 explain how modals are used to talk about possibility, or to show the attitude of the speaker.

Statements, questions, orders, and suggestions

5.2 Sentences are used to do many different things.

The most common use is to give information.

I went to Glasgow University.
Carol was one of my sister’s best friends.

Sometimes you use a sentence to obtain information, rather than to give it.

Where is my father?
What did you say to Myra?
How long have you been out of this country?

At other times you want to express an opinion, give an order, make a suggestion, or make a promise.

That’s an excellent idea.
Go away, all of you.
Shall we listen to the news?
If you have any questions, I’ll do my best to answer them.

When someone says or writes a sentence, they need to show what they are trying to do with it, so that it will be clear, for example, that they are asking a question and not making a statement.

word order

5.3 Often it is the order of words that indicates which way a sentence is being used. For example, if you say He is Norwegian, the word order makes it clear that you are making a statement. If you say Is he Norwegian?, the word order indicates that you are asking a question.

Another way of showing which way a sentence is being used is to begin it with a verb, rather than with the subject. For example, if you say Give this book to Michael, it is clear that you are giving an order or instruction, rather than making a statement or asking a question.

statements, questions, and orders

5.4 There are three main ways of showing what type of sentence is being used in English. These sentence-types are used for forming statements, questions, and orders.

The declarative form is used in most main clauses. Statements are almost always made using the declarative form. When a clause is in the declarative, the subject is placed in front of the verb.

The declarative is sometimes called the indicative.

I want to talk to Mr Castle.
Gertrude looked at Anne.
We’ll give you fifteen pounds now.

The interrogative form is usually used in questions. In clauses, the subject is often placed after the main verb or after an auxiliary verb.

Is she very upset?
Where is my father?
Have you met Harry?
Did you give him my letter?

The imperative is used to try to direct someone’s actions. In clauses, the subject is usually omitted and the base form of the verb is used.

Come back this minute.
Show me the complete manuscript.

There is a fourth form called the subjunctive. This is a feature of English verbs that sometimes occurs in subordinate clauses. The subjunctive is not used to distinguish between different uses of language, and is therefore not dealt with in this chapter. Clauses in which the subjunctive occurs are explained in paragraphs 7.43, 8.41, and 8.48.

5.5 The ways in which these different structures are used are explained in the following paragraphs.

Paragraphs 5.6 to 5.9 explain how the declarative is used to make statements. Paragraphs 5.10 to 5.34 explain how the interrogative is used to ask questions. Paragraphs 5.35 to 5.39 explain how the imperative is used to try to direct someone’s actions.

Other uses of the declarative, interrogative, and imperative are explained in paragraphs 5.40 to 5.46.

Making statements: the declarative form

giving information

5.6 When you are giving information, you use the declarative form.

We ate dinner at six.
I like reading poetry.
Officials have refused to comment.

expressing opinions

5.7 When you are expressing an opinion, you usually use the declarative form.

I think she is a brilliant writer.
It’s a good thing Father is deaf.
He ought to have let me know he was going out.

making promises

5.8 When you make a promise, you use the declarative form.

I shall do everything I can to help you.
I’ll have it sent down by special delivery.

emphasis

5.9 You can emphasize a statement by putting do, does, or did in front of the base form of the verb.

I do feel sorry for Roger.
A little knowledge does seem to be a dangerous thing.
He had no time to spend time with his family, but he did bring home a regular salary.

Asking questions: the interrogative form

5.10 When you ask a question, you usually use the interrogative form.

types of question

5.11 There are two main types of question.

Questions that can be answered by yes or no are called yes/no-questions.

‘Is he your only child?’ – ‘Yes.’
‘Are you planning to marry soon?’ – ‘No.’
‘Can I help you?’ – ‘Yes, I’d like to book a single room, please.’
‘Are you interested in racing?’ – ‘Yes, I love it.’
‘Are you a singer as well as an actress?’ – ‘No, I’m not a singer at all.’
‘Do you like it?’ – ‘Yes, I really like it.’

The actual answer to a yes/no-question is not always yes or no. For example, if you ask someone Do you read in bed?, they might say Sometimes or Never. If you say to someone Do you like jazz?, they might say I think it’s great. But the questions Do you read in bed? and Do you like jazz? are still yes/no-questions, because yes and no are the type of answers the questioner expects. Sometimes will be interpreted as a weak yes answer, never as a strong no answer, and I think it’s great as a strong yes answer.

Yes/no-questions are fully explained in paragraphs 5.12 to 5.20.

The other main type of question begins with a wh-word such as what, where, or when. When you ask a question of this type, the answer cannot be yes or no.

‘Who gave you my number?’ – ‘Your mother did.’ ‘Why didn’t you ask me?’ – ‘I was afraid to.’ ‘Where is he now?’ – ‘He’s at university.’

This type of question is called a wh-question. When wh-words are used as pronouns or adverbs at the beginning of a wh-question, they are called interrogative pronouns or interrogative adverbs.

Wh-questions are explained in paragraphs 5.21 to 5.34.

Yes/no-questions

position of auxiliary verbs

5.12 In a yes/no-question, if there is an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary verb comes first, followed by the subject, then the main verb.

Are you staying here, by any chance?
Will they win again?
Will they like my garden?
Can he read yet?

If there is more than one auxiliary verb, the first auxiliary verb comes at the beginning of the clause, followed by the subject, followed by the other verbs.

Had he been murdered?
Has it been thrown away, perhaps?

For information about auxiliaries, see the Reference Section.

5.13 If there is no auxiliary verb, you put do, does, or did at the beginning of the clause, in front of the subject, followed by the base form of the main verb.

Do you understand what I’m saying?
Does it hurt much?
Did you meet George in France?

Note that if the main verb is do, you still put do, does, or did at the beginning of the clause, in front of the subject.

Do they do the work themselves?
Does David do this sort of thing often?

be and have as main verbs

5.14 If the verb is be, you do not use do. You simply put the verb at the beginning of the clause, followed by the subject.

Are you okay?
Is she Ricky’s sister?
Am I right?
Was it lonely without us?

If the verb is have, you usually put do, does, or did at the beginning of the clause, in front of the subject.

Do passengers have rights?
Does anyone have a question?
Did you have a good flight?

However, when you use have in the sense of own or possess, you do not need to use do, does, or did. You can simply put have, has, or had at the beginning of the clause. This is a slightly formal use.

Have we anything else we ought to talk about first?
Has he any idea what it’s like?

If you use have got or has got in a yes/no-question, you put have or has at the beginning of the clause, followed by the subject, followed by got.

Have you got any brochures on Holland?
Has she got a car?

Have got and has got are explained in paragraph 3.15.

Making a statement into a question: question tags

5.15 You can ask for confirmation that something is true by making a statement in the declarative, then adding an expression such as isn’t it? or was she? Constructions like these are called question tags. Question tags are most often used in spoken English.

forming question tags

5.16 Question tags are formed using an auxiliary or a form of be or do, followed by a personal pronoun referring to the subject.

If the main clause is in the affirmative, you use a negative tag. Negative tags are always contracted, except in old-fashioned or very formal English.

It is quite warm, isn’t it?

If the main clause is in the negative, you use an affirmative tag.

You didn’t know I was an artist, did you?

If the main clause of your statement has an auxiliary in it, you use the same auxiliary in the tag.

You will stay in touch, won’t you?

If the main clause has the past simple or present simple form of be as the main verb, you use this in the tag.

They are, aren’st they?

If the main clause does not have an auxiliary or the verb be, you use do, does, or did in the tag.

After a couple of years the heat gets too much, doesn’t it?
He played for Ireland, didn’t he?

Note that the negative tag with I is aren’t I, even though am is the auxiliary or main verb in the main clause.

I’m controlling it, aren’t I?

checking statements

5.17 If you have an opinion or belief about something and you want to check that it is true, or to find out if someone agrees with you, you can make a statement and add a question tag after it to make it into a question.

If you are making an affirmative statement and you want to check that it is true, you use a negative question tag.

You like Ralph a lot, don’t you?
They are beautiful places, aren’t they?

If you are making a negative statement and want to check that it is true, you use an affirmative tag.

It doesn’t work, does it?
You won’t tell anyone else all this, will you?

You can also use an affirmative tag if your statement contains a broad negative, a negative adverb, or a negative pronoun.

That hardly counts, does it?
You’ve never been to Benidorm, have you?
Nothing had changed, had it?

replying to tags

5.18 The person you are speaking to replies to the content of your statement rather than to the tag, and confirms an affirmative statement with yes and a negative statement with no.

It became stronger, didn’t it?’ –‘Yes it did.’
You didn’t know that, did you?’ – ‘No.’

other uses of question tags

5.19 If you are making a statement about yourself and you want to check if the person you are talking to has the same opinion or feeling, you can put a tag with you after your statement.

I think this is the best thing, don’t you?
I love tea, don’t you?

Question tags can also be used to show your reaction to something that someone has just said or implied, for example to show interest, surprise, or anger. Note that you use an affirmative tag after an affirmative statement.

You fell on your back, did you?
You’ve been to North America before, have you?
Oh, he wants us to make films as well, does he?

When using let’s to suggest doing something, you can add the tag shall we to check that the people you are talking to agree with you.

Let’s forget it, shall we?

If you are suggesting that you do something and you want to check that the person you are speaking to agrees, you can add the tag shall I?

I’ll call the doctor, shall I?

If you are telling someone to do something and you want to make your order sound less forceful, you can do so by adding a question tag. The tag is usually will you, but won’t you and can’t you are also used.

Come into the kitchen, will you?
Look at that, will you?
See that she gets safely back, won’t you?

When you are using a negative imperative, you can only use will you as a tag.

Don’t tell Howard, will you?

You can also add an affirmative tag such as are you?
to an affirmative statement if you want to show interest in a piece of information.

So, you’re leaving us, are you?
He’s a friend of yours, is he?

Either/or-questions

5.20 You sometimes ask a question in which you mention two or more possible answers. You link the possible answers with or. For example, you might say Is he awake or asleep? or Do you like your coffee white or black? You expect the actual answer to your question to be one of the answers you have mentioned.

Words, phrases, and clauses can all be linked in this way.

Questions like these are sometimes called either/or-questions.

‘Is it a boy or a girl?’ – ‘A beautiful boy.’
‘Was it healthy or diseased?’ – ‘Diseased, I’m afraid.’
Shall we take the bus or do you want to walk?’ – ‘Let’s walk, shall we?’

Wh-questions

5.21 When you ask someone a wh-question, you want them to specify a particular person, thing, place, reason, method, time, or amount. You do not expect them to answer yes or no.

wh-words

5.22 Wh-questions begin with a wh-word.

Wh-words are a set of pronouns, adverbs, and determiners which all, with the exception of how, begin with wh-. Here is a list of the main wh-words:

how

what

when

where

which

who

whom

whose

why

wh-word as subject

5.23 When a wh-word is the subject of a verb, or when it forms part of the subject, the word order of the clause is the same as that of a clause in the declarative, i.e. the subject is put first, followed by the verb.

Who invited you?
And then what happened?
Which mattress is best?

wh-word as object or adverb

5.24 When a wh-word is the object of a verb or preposition, or when it forms part of the object, or when it is an adverb, the position of the subject is the usual one in the interrogative form; that is, it comes after the first verb in the clause.

What am I going to do without you?
Which graph are you going to use?
Why would Stephen lie to me?
When would you be coming down?

If you are using the present simple or the past simple of any verb except be, you put do, does, or did in front of the subject.

What do you really think?
Which department do you want?
Where does she live?
How do you know what it’s like?
When did you last see John Cartwright?

If you are using the present simple or the past simple of be, the main verb goes in front of the subject. You do not use do, does, or did.

Where is the station?
How was your meeting?
When was the last time you cleaned the garage?

questions without a verb

5.25 In conversation, a wh-question sometimes consists of a wh-word on its own.

For example, if you say to someone I’m learning to type, they might say Why?, meaning Why are you learning to type?

‘He saw a snake.’ – ‘Where?’
‘I have to go to Germany.’ – ‘When?’
‘I knew you were landing today.’ – ‘How?’

A wh-question can also consist of a noun phrase containing a wh-word. For example, if you say to someone I gave your book to that girl, they might say Which girl?, meaning Which girl did you give my book to?

‘He knew my cousin.’ – ‘Which cousin?’
‘Who was your friend?’ – ‘What friend?’

who and whom

5.26 The pronoun who is used to ask questions about a person’s identity. Who can be the subject or object of a verb.

Who discovered this?
Who were her friends?
Who is Michael Howard?
Who did he marry?

In more formal English, whom is sometimes used instead of who as the object of a verb.

Whom shall we call?
Whom did you see?

Who and whom can also be the object of a preposition. When who is the object of a preposition, the preposition is put at the end of the clause.

Who did you dance with?
Who do I pay this to?

When whom is the object of a preposition, the preposition is put at the beginning of the clause, in front of whom.

For whom was he working while in Baghdad?
To whom is a broadcaster responsible?

In informal spoken English, who is sometimes used after a preposition.

So you report to who?

This use is especially common when you leave out part of the question.

‘They were saying horrible things.’ – ‘Really? To who?’
‘It could be difficult.’ – ‘For who?’

whose

5.27 Whose is used as a determiner or pronoun to ask which person something belongs to or is associated with.

Whose children did you think they were?
Whose coat was it?
Whose is that?

which

5.28 Which is used as a pronoun or determiner to ask someone to identify a specific person or thing out of a number of people or things.

Which is the best restaurant?
Which is her room?
Which do you like best?
Which doctor do you want to see?

When which is a determiner, it can be part of the object of a preposition. The preposition is usually put at the end of the question.

Which station did you come from?
Which character did you like most?

when and where

5.29 When is used to ask questions about the time something happened, happens, or will happen.

When did you find her?
When do we have supper?
Ginny, when are you coming home?

Where is used to ask questions about place, position, or direction.

Where does she live?
Where are you going?
Where do you go to complain?

why

5.30 Why is used to ask a question about the reason for something.

Why are you here?
Why does Amy want to go and see his grave?
Why does she treat me like that when we’re such old friends?

Why is sometimes used without a subject and with the base form of a verb, usually to ask why an action is or was necessary.

Why wake me up?
Why bother about me?
Why make a point of it?

Why not can be used with the base form of a verb, in order to make a suggestion or to ask why a particular action has not been taken.

Why not end it now?
Why not read a book?
If you have money in the bank, why not use it?

how

5.31 How is usually used to ask about the method used for doing something, or about the way in which something can be achieved.

How do we open it?
How are you going to get that?
How could he explain it to her?
How did he know when you were coming?

How is also used to ask questions about the way a person feels, about the way someone or something looks, or about the way something sounds, feels, or tastes.

How are you feeling today?
How do I look?’ – ‘Very nice.’
How did you feel when you stood up in front of the class?

how with other words

5.32 How can be combined with other words at the beginning of questions.

How many and how much are used to ask what number of things there are or what amount of something there is.

How many is followed by a plural countable noun.

How many people are there?
How many languages can you speak?
How many times have you been?

How much is followed by an uncountable noun.

How much money have we got in the bank?
Just how much time have you been devoting to this?

How many and how much can be used without a following noun when you do not need to make it clear what sort of thing you are talking about.

How many did you find?
How much did he tell you?
How much does it cost?
How much do they really understand?

How long is used to ask about the length of a period of time.

How long have you lived here?
How long will it take?
How long can she live like this?
How long ago was that?

How long is also used to ask questions about the length of something.

How long is this road?

How far is used in questions about distance and extent.

How far can we see?
How far is it to Montreal from here?
How far have you got with your homework?

You can combine how with an adjective when you are asking to what extent something has a particular quality or feature.

How big is your flat?
How old are your children?

How come? is an informal way of asking why? It is normally used only in speech.

How come you know so much about Linda?

what

5.33 What can be a pronoun or determiner, or it can be used in combination with if or for.

What is used as a pronoun to find out various kinds of specific information, for example details of an event, the meaning of a word or expression, or the reason for something.

What’s wrong with his mother?
What has happened to him?
What is obesity?
What keeps you hanging around here?

What can be used to ask someone’s opinion of something.

What do you think about the present political situation?

What is often used as the object of a preposition. The preposition usually goes at the end of the question.

What are you interested in?
What did he die of?
What do you want to talk about?

What is used as a determiner to find out the identity of something or to ask what kind of thing it is.

What books does she read?
What church did you say you attend?

What if goes in front of a clause in the declarative. It is used to ask what should be done if a particular difficulty occurs.

What if it’s really bad weather?
What if they didn’t want to part with it, what would you do then?

You put what at the beginning of a question and for at the end of it when you want to know the reason for something or the purpose of something. What are you staring for? means the same as Why are you staring? What is this handle for? means What is the purpose of this handle?

What are you going for?
What are those lights for?

In informal spoken English, you can also say What for? when someone says what they have done, or what they intend to do, and you want to know the reason for their actions.

‘I’ve bought you a present.’ – ‘What for?’

What can also be used in combination with about or of. This use is explained in paragraph 5.45.

whatever, wherever, and whoever

5.34 If you want a question to sound more emphatic, you can use whatever instead of what, wherever instead of where, or whoever instead of who.

Whatever is the matter?
Wherever did you get this?
Whoever heard of a bishop resigning?

Directing other people’s actions: the imperative

orders and instructions

5.35 When someone gives a very clear order or instruction, they usually use the imperative.

Discard any clothes you have not worn for more than a year.
Put that gun down.
Tell your mother as soon as possible.

Written instructions are given in the imperative.

Boil up a little water with washing up liquid in it.
Fry the chopped onion and pepper in the oil.

USAGE NOTE

When they are followed by a second verb, the imperative forms of come and go are used with and, followed by the base form of the second verb, rather than a to-infinitive. The two actions seem to be separate, because of the and, but they are in fact very closely linked.

Come and see me whenever you need help.

In spoken American English, the imperative forms of come and go can be followed directly by the base form of the verb.

Come see what the dog did to the couch. (Am)
Go get some sleep. (Am)

An order can be made more forceful by putting you in front of the verb.

You get in the car.
You shut up!

advice and warnings

5.36 You can use the imperative when you are giving advice or a warning.

Be sensible.
You be careful.

Often advice or a warning is expressed in a negative form. You form a negative imperative by putting don’t or do not in front of the base form of the verb.

Don’t be afraid of them.
Don’t be discouraged.
Do not approach this man under any circumstances.

You can also form a negative imperative by putting never in front of the base form of a verb.

Never make a social phone call after 9.30 p.m.

Another way of giving advice or a warning is to use one of the modals should or ought to in a declarative sentence.

You should get to know him better.
You shouldn’t keep eggs in the refrigerator.

This use is explained in detail in paragraph 5.213.

appeals

5.37 You use the imperative when you are trying to get someone to do something.

Come quickly… Come quickly… Hurry!

You can make an appeal more forceful by putting do in front of the verb.

Oh do stop whining!
Do come and stay with us in Barbados for the winter.

explanations

5.38 You can use the imperative with some verbs when you are explaining something and you want the listener or reader to think about a particular thing or possibility, or to compare two things.

Take, for instance, the new proposals for student loans.
Imagine, for example, an assembly line worker in a factory making children’s blocks.
But suppose for a moment that the automobile industry had developed at the same rate as computers.
For example, compare a typical poor country like Indonesia with a rich one like Canada.
Consider, for example, the contrast between the way schools today treat space and time.

Here is a list of verbs that are used in this way:

compare

consider

contrast

imagine

look at

note

picture

suppose

take

let

5.39 Let is used in imperative sentences in four different ways:

it is used to give an order or instruction

Let Phillip have a look at it.

you use it followed by us when you are making a suggestion about what you and someone else should do. Let us is almost always shortened to Let’s

Let’s go outside.
Let’s creep forward on hands and knees.

you use it followed by me when you are offering to do something

Let me take your coat.

in very formal English, it is used to express a wish.

Let the joy be universal.
Let confusion live!
Let the best man or woman win.

To make a negative suggestion you use Let’s not or, in informal American English, Let’s don’t.

Let’s not stay till the end.
Let’s don’t ask about the missing books. (Am, informal)

Other uses of the declarative, the interrogative, and the imperative

confirming

5.40 You can confirm that something is true by asking a question using the declarative form.

So you admit something is wrong?
Then you think we can keep it?

When you ask a question using the declarative form, you expect a yes-type answer, unless you use a negative construction, in which case you expect the answer no.

‘You mean it’s still here?’ – ‘Of course.’
‘Your parents don’t mind you being out so late?’ – ‘No, they don’t’.

Questions expressed in the declarative form often begin with a conjunction.

So you’re satisfied?
And you think that’s a good idea?

instructing

5.41 In informal spoken English, you can give an instruction by using a declarative sentence with you as the subject.

You put the month and the temperature on the top line.
You take the bus up to the landing stage at twelve-thirty.
You just put it straight in the oven.

offers and invitations

5.42 When you are making an offer or an invitation, you usually use a yes/no-question beginning with a modal such as can or would. This use is explained in detail in paragraphs 5.171 to 5.176.

Can I help you?
Can I give you a lift?
Would you like me to get something for you?
Would you like some coffee?
Would you like to go to Ernie’s for dinner?

You can also make an offer or invitation in a more informal way by using the imperative form. Note that you can only do this when it is clear that you are not giving an order.

Have a cigar.
Come to my place.
Come in, Mrs Kintner.

You add emphasis by putting do in front of the verb.

Do have a chocolate biscuit.
Do help yourselves.

requests, orders, and instructions

5.43 When you are making a request, you usually use a yes/no-question beginning with one of the modals could, can, or would.

Could I ask you a few questions?
Can I have my hat back, please?
Would you mind having a word with my husband?

You can also give an order or instruction using a yes/no-question beginning with a modal.

Will you tell Watson I shall be in a little late?

These uses are explained in detail in paragraphs 5.154 to 5.164.

questions that do not expect an answer

5.44 When you use a yes/no-question to offer help or to make a request, you still expect the answer yes or no. However, people sometimes say things that seem like yes/no-questions, although they do not expect an answer at all. They are using the yes/no-question form to express a strong feeling, opinion, or impression.

For example, instead of saying That’s an ugly building, someone might say Isn’t that an ugly building? Or instead of saying You never seem to get upset, someone might say Don’t you ever get upset?

Questions like these are called rhetorical questions.

Is there nothing she won’t do?
Can’t you see that I’m busy?
Hasn’t anyone round here got any sense?
Does nothing ever worry you?

Another kind of rhetorical question consists of a statement followed by a question tag such as are you? or is it? For example, someone might say So you are the new assistant, are you? or So they’re coming to tea, are they?

So you want to be an actress, do you?
So they’re moving house again, are they?

Rhetorical questions can also begin with how. They usually express a feeling of shock or indignation. For example, instead of saying You are very cruel, someone might say How can you be so cruel?

How can you say such things?
How dare you speak to me like that?

Rhetorical questions are dealt with fully in paragraph 9.94.

questions without a verb

5.45 You can ask a question consisting of what about or what of in front of a noun phrase, without a verb. You ask a question like this to remind someone of something, or to draw their attention to something. With this type of question, you often expect an action, rather than a reply.

What about the others on the list?
What about your breakfast?
But what of the women themselves?

suggestions

5.46 There are several ways in which you can make a suggestion:

you can use the modal could in a declarative sentence (see paragraph 5.181)

We could have tea.
You could get someone to dress up as a pirate.

you can use a negative wh-question beginning with why

Why don’t we just give them what they want?
Why don’t you write to her yourself?

you can use a question consisting of what about or how about in front of an -ing form

What about becoming an actor?
How about using makeup to dramatize your features?

you can use the imperative.

Give them a reward each,’ I suggested.

You can also make a suggestion about what you and someone else might do by using let’s. This use is explained in paragraph 5.39.

Forming negative statements

5.47 When you want to say that something is not true, is not happening, or is not the case, you normally use a negative statement. Negative statements contain words like not, never, or nowhere. These are called negative words.

Here is the list of negative words in English:

neither

never

no

nobody

none

no one

nor

not

nothing

nowhere

Negative words indicate the opposite of something or an absence of something.

5.48 Another group of words such as scarcely and seldom can be used to make a statement almost negative. These words are called broad negatives. They are explained in paragraphs 5.80 to 5.87.

5.49 If a statement about the existence of something has a negative word in it, you use any (not no) as a determiner in front of the following noun phrase. You can also use a word beginning with any- such as anyone or anywhere.

We didn’t have any money.
He writes poetry and never shows it to anyone.
It is impossible to park the car anywhere.

For another use of any see paragraph 2.163.

BE CAREFUL

5.50 In standard English, it is almost always unacceptable to use two negative words in the same clause. For example, you do not say, I don’t never go there, or I don’t know nothing.

5.51 The use of negatives in reported speech is explained in paragraph 7.13. The use of negatives with modals is explained in paragraph 5.102.

not

5.52 The most commonly used negative word is not. Its use with different verbs corresponds to the way these verbs are used in yes/no-questions (see paragraphs 5.12 to 5.14).

position in verb phrases

5.53 When not is used with a verb phrase that contains an auxiliary verb, it comes after the first verb in the phrase.

They could not exist in their present form.
They might not even notice.
The White House has not commented on the report.
He had not attended many meetings.
I was not smiling.
Her teachers were not impressed with her excuses.

adding do

5.54 If there is no auxiliary verb, you put do, does, or did after the subject, followed by not or -n’t, followed by the base form of the main verb.

They do not need to talk.
He does not speak English very well.
I didn’t know that.

Be and have are exceptions to this; this is explained in the following paragraphs 5.55 and 5.56. The shortening of not to -n’t is explained in paragraphs 5.59 and 5.60.

not with be

5.55 If the verb is be, you do not use do. You simply put not or -n’t after the verb.

It is not difficult to see why they were unsuccessful.
There is not much point in heading south.
This isn’t my first choice of restaurant.

not with have and have got

5.56 If the verb is have, you usually put do, does, or did after the subject, followed by not or -n’t, followed by the base form have.

The organization does not have a good track record.
He didn’t have a very grand salary.

You can simply put not or -n’t after the verb, but this use is less common, and almost never used in modern American English.

He hadn’t enough money.
I haven’t any papers to say that I have been trained.

If you use have got, you put not or -n’t after have, followed by got.

I haven’t got the latest figures.
He hasn’t got a daughter.

Have got is explained in paragraph 3.15.

position with -ing forms and to-infinitives

5.57 When not is used with an -ing form or a to-infinitive clause, it is placed in front of the -ing form or to-infinitive.

We stood there, not knowing what was expected of us.
He lost out by not taking a degree at another university.
Try not to worry.
It took a vast amount of patience not to strangle him.

with an inflected form and an -ing form or to-infinitive

5.58 When a clause contains an inflected verb and an -ing form or to-infinitive, you put not either with the inflected form or with the -ing form or to-infinitive, depending on the meaning you want to express.

For example, you can say either Mary tried not to smile or Mary did not try to smile, but they express different meanings. The first means that Mary tried to avoid smiling. The second means that Mary did not even try to smile.

However, with some verbs that are used with to-infinitives, the meaning is the same whether not is placed with the main verb or with the to-infinitive.

She did not appear to have done anything.
Henry appears not to appreciate my explanation.
It didn’t seem to bother them at all.
They seemed not to notice me.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with to-infinitives. With all of these, the meaning of the clause is the same, whether not is put in front of the verb or in front of the to-infinitive:

appear

expect

happen

intend

plan

seem

tend

want

wish

The use of two verbs in a clause to talk about two actions or states is dealt with in paragraphs 3.182 to 3.212.

Note that with some reporting verbs the meaning is the same whether you put not in front of the reporting verb or in front of the main verb. This is explained in paragraph 7.13.

contractions of not

5.59 In spoken English and in informal written English, not is often shortened to -n’t after be or have or after an auxiliary. -n’t is attached to the end of the verb.

Maria isn’t really my aunt at all.
He doesn’t believe in anything.
I haven’t heard from her recently.

Note that cannot is shortened to can’t, shall not is shortened to shan’t, and will not is shortened to won’t.

Here is a complete list of the shortened forms you can use:

aren’t

isn’t

wasn’t

weren’t

didn’t

doesn’t

don’t

hadn’t

hasn’t

haven’t

can’t

couldn’t

mightn’t

mustn’t

oughtn’t

shan’t

shouldn’t

won’t

wouldn’t

USAGE NOTE

5.60 Note that if the verb is already shortened and added to its subject, you cannot shorten not to -n’t. This means, for example, that you can shorten she is not to she isn’t or she’s not, but not to she’sn’t.

It isn’t easy.
It’s not easy.
I haven’t had time.
I’ve not had time.

Note that you cannot add -n’t to am. You can only use I’m not as the shortened form.

I’m not excited.

The form aren’t I is used in questions.

In questions, not is usually shortened to -n’t and added to the first verb in the verb phrase.

Didn’t she win at the Olympics?
Hasn’t he put on weight?
Aren’t you bored?

However, in formal English, it is also possible to put not after the subject.

Did he not have brothers?
Was it not rather absurd?

other uses of not

5.61 You can also use not with almost any word or word group in a clause. For example, you can use it with nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and some quantity expressions such as a lot of. You usually do this in order to be more forceful, careful, polite, hesitant, and so on. The following paragraphs 5.63 and 5.64 describe some of these uses.

5.62 Very is often used after not to soften the negative meaning of a clause. This sounds more polite or hesitant than using not without very.

His attitude is not very logical.
It’s not very strong tea; it won’t stain.
He wasn’t a very good actor.
She shook her head, but not very convincingly.

You can use not with absolutely, altogether, entirely, or necessarily in a similar way. You do this in order to sound more polite or less critical.

Previous experience isn’t absolutely necessary, but it helps.
I was not altogether sure.
They are not entirely reliable.
Science is not necessarily hostile to human values.

You use not to show that the thing you are describing does in fact have some good qualities, although you do not want to make them sound better than they really are. This structure is often used with words that have a negative prefix such as un- or -less.

She’s not an unattractive woman.
It’s not a bad start.
It’s a small point, but not an unimportant one.
America is very well developed, but not limitless.

not used for contrast

5.63 Not is sometimes used to contrast one part of a clause with another. Using not in this way emphasizes the positive part of a statement.

He held her arm in his hand, not hard, but firmly.
We move steadily, not fast, not slow.
‘Were they still interested?’ – ‘Not just interested. Overjoyed.’
I will move eventually, but not from Suffolk.
It’s not a huge hotel, but it’s very nice.

never

5.64 Never is used to say that something was not or will not ever be the case.

When it is used with a verb phrase that contains an auxiliary verb, never is put after the first verb in the verb phrase and in front of the main verb.

I would never trust my judgement again.
…a type of glass that is rare and is never used.
The number of people who died will never be known.
Fifty years ago, men were never expected to wash the dishes or help with the children.
I had never been to this big town before.
I’ve never done so much work in all my life.

However, you can put never in front of the first word in the verb phrase in order to emphasize the negative aspect of a statement.

I never would have guessed if he hadn’t told me.
There was no such person–there never had been.

with simple forms of be

5.65 If the main verb is the present simple or past simple of be, never usually comes after the verb.

She was never too proud to learn.
I’m never very keen on keeping a car for more than a year.
There were never any people in the house.

However, you can put never in front of a simple form of be for emphasis.

There never was enough hot water at home.
It never was very clear.
There never is any great change.

with simple forms of other verbs

5.66 If the main verb is the present simple or past simple of any verb except be, never comes in front of the verb.

I never want to see you in my classes again.
She never goes abroad.
He never went to university.
He never did any homework.

emphasis

5.67 You can make a negative statement more emphatic by using never followed by do, does, or did in front of the base form of the verb. For example, instead of saying I never met him, you can say I never did meet him.

They never did get their money back.
She never did find her real mother.
Some people never do adjust to life here.

never in imperatives

5.68 Never can be used at the beginning of imperative structures.

Never change a wheel near a drain.
Never dry clothes in front of an open fire.

Imperative structures are explained in paragraph 5.4 and in paragraphs 5.35 to 5.39.

no

5.69 No is an indefinite determiner that is used in front of singular and plural nouns to say that something does not exist or is not available.

There was no money for an operation.
We had no parents, nobody to look after us.
He has no ambition.
I could see no tracks.

Indefinite determiners are explained in paragraphs 1.223 to 1.250.

5.70 In spoken English, -n’t is often used with any instead of no. For example, instead of saying I had no money, you can say I didn’t have any money.

They hadn’t meant any harm to her.
I can’t see any hope in it.

none

5.71 The pronoun none is used to say that there is not a single thing or person, or not even a small amount of a particular thing.

I waited for comments but none came.
The entire area is covered with shallow lakes, none more than a few yards in depth.
We have been seeing difficulties where none exist.

For another use of none see paragraph 1.155.

none of

5.72 None of is a quantity expression.

None of the townspeople had ever seen such weather.
None of this has happened without our consent.

For an explanation of none of see paragraphs 2.179 and 2.185.

words beginning with no-

5.73 There are four words beginning with no- that are used in negative statements. Nothing, no one, and nobody are indefinite pronouns. Nowhere is an indefinite place adverb.

There’s nothing you can do.
Nobody in her house knows any English.
There’s almost nowhere left to go.

Indefinite pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.128 to 1.141.

Indefinite place adverbs are explained in paragraphs 6.61 and 6.71.

followed by but

5.74 Nothing, no one, nobody, and nowhere can be followed by but to mean only. For example, There was nothing but cheese means that there was only cheese.

I look back on this period with nothing but pleasure.
He heard no one but his uncles.

Indefinite pronouns and adverbs that begin with any can be used in similar structures. However, in these structures but means except, rather than only.

I could never speak about anything but business to Ivan.
He never spoke to anyone but his wife.

neither and nor

5.75 Neither and nor are used together to say that two alternatives are not possible, likely, or true. Neither goes in front of the first alternative and nor goes in front of the second one.

Neither Margaret nor John was there.
They had neither food nor money until the end of the week.

neither in replies

5.76 Neither can be used on its own as a reply, to refer to two alternatives that have already been mentioned.

‘Does that mean yes or no?’ – ‘Neither’.

5.77 If a clause contains a negative word, particularly not, you can use neither or nor to negate a second clause. In the second clause, you put neither or nor first, followed by the verb, followed by the subject.

This isn’t a dazzling achievement, but neither is it a negligible one.
These people are not insane, nor are they fools.

If there is an auxiliary, it is placed in front of the subject in the second clause.

The organization had broken no rules, but neither had it acted responsibly.
I don’t feel any shame. Neither do I think I should.

neither with singular nouns

5.78 Neither can be used on its own in front of a singular noun referring to each of two things when you are making a negative statement about both of them. For example, Neither partner benefited from the agreement means that there were two partners and the negative statement applies to both of them.

Neither report mentioned the Americans.
Neither film was particularly good.
Neither sex has a monopoly on thought or emotion.
Neither parent is the good one or the bad one.

Note that in this structure neither is used with a singular verb.

neither of

5.79 When neither is followed by of, it makes a set of two things negative. Neither of is followed by a plural noun phrase.

Neither of us was having any luck.
Neither of the boys screamed.
Neither of them was making any sound.

Neither of is normally used with a singular verb.

Neither of these extremes is desirable.
Neither of these opinions proves anything.

However, it is also possible to use a plural verb.

Neither of the children were there.

Broad negatives: hardly, seldom, etc.

5.80 Another way in which you can make a statement negative is by using a broad negative. Broad negatives are adverbs like rarely and seldom, which are used to make a statement almost totally negative.

The estimated sales will hardly cover the cost of making the film.
We were scarcely able to move.
Kuwait lies barely 30 miles from the Iranian coast.

Here is a list of the most common broad negatives:

barely

hardly

rarely

scarcely

seldom

position in clause

5.81 The position of a broad negative within a clause is similar to that of never (see paragraphs 5.64 to 5.66).

5.82 When you use a broad negative with a verb phrase that contains an auxiliary verb, you put it after the first word in the verb phrase and in front of the main verb.

I could scarcely believe my eyes.
Religion was rarely discussed in our house.
His eyes had hardly closed.

with simple form of be

5.83 If the verb is the present simple or past simple of be, the broad negative usually comes after the verb.

Change is seldom easy.
The new pressure group is barely six months old.
The office was hardly ever empty.
The lagoons are rarely deep.
The results were scarcely encouraging.

with other verbs

5.84 If the verb is the present simple or past simple of any verb except be, the broad negative usually comes in front of the verb.

He seldom bathed.
Marsha rarely felt hungry.
John hardly ever spoke to the Press.

It is also possible to put a broad negative after the verb, but this is less common.

Such moments happen rarely in life.
They met so seldom.

as first word in the clause

5.85 In formal or literary English, a broad negative is sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause for emphasis. If you are using a verb phrase with an auxiliary, the first word in the verb phrase is placed after the broad negative, followed by the subject and then the remainder of the verb phrase.

Seldom has society offered so wide a range of leisure time activities.
Hardly had he settled into his seat when Adam charged in.

If there is no auxiliary, you put the present simple or past simple of do after the broad negative, followed by the subject, followed by the base form of the main verb.

Seldom did a week pass without a request for assessment.
Rarely do local matches live up to expectations.

Note that barely and scarcely are not often used in this way.

USAGE NOTE

5.86 If you make a question tag out of a statement that contains a broad negative, the tag on the end of the statement is normally in the affirmative, as it is with other negatives. Question tags are explained in paragraphs 5.15 to 5.19.

She’s hardly the right person for the job, is she?
You seldom see that sort of thing these days, do you?

You can modify rarely and seldom by putting so, very, too, or pretty in front of them. You can also modify rarely by using only.

It happens so rarely.
Women were very seldom convicted.
He too seldom makes the first greeting.
Most people go to church only rarely.

If you want to say there is very little of something, you can use a broad negative with any or with a word that begins with any-.

The bonds show barely any interest.
Hardly anybody came.
In fact, it is seldom any of these.
With scarcely any warning, the soldiers charged.
Sometimes two or three relatives are admitted, but rarely any friends.

almost

5.87 Instead of using a broad negative, you can use almost followed by a negative word such as no or never. For example, There was almost no food left means the same as There was hardly any food left.

They’ve almost no money for anything.
The cars thinned out to almost none.
They were very private people, with almost no friends.
Children almost never began conversations.

Emphasizing the negative aspect of a statement

at all

5.88 You can add at all to a negative statement in order to make it more emphatic. You use at all with any negative word, with without, or with a broad negative.

She had no writing ability at all.
‘There’s no need,’ said Jimmie. ‘None at all’.
He did it without any help at all.
He hardly read anything at all.

Broad negatives are explained in paragraphs 5.80 to 5.86.

whatsoever

5.89 You can put whatsoever after none and nothing in order to emphasize the negative aspect of a statement.

‘You don’t think he has any chance of winning?’ – ‘None whatsoever.’
There is absolutely no enjoyment in that, none whatsoever.
You’ll find yourself thinking about nothing whatsoever.

If no is used as a determiner in a noun phrase, you can put whatsoever after the noun phrase.

There is no need whatsoever to teach children how to behave.
There was no debate whatsoever, not even in Parliament.

You can also use whatsoever in negative statements that contain any or a word that begins with any-.

You are not entitled to any aid whatsoever.
He was devoid of any talent whatsoever.
I knew I wasn’t learning anything whatsoever.

ever

5.90 You can put ever after negative words in order to emphasize the negative aspect of a statement.

I can’t say I ever had much interest in fishing.
Nobody ever leaves the airport.
I never ever believed we would have such success.

other expressions

5.91 There are several expressions that are used to emphasize a negative statement that contains not. These include in the least, the least bit, in the slightest, and a bit.

I don’t mind in the least, I really don’t.
Neither of the managers was the least bit repentant afterwards.
I don’t really envy you in the slightest.
They’re not a bit interested.

If in the least and in the slightest are used with verbs, they are placed either immediately after the verb or after the object, if there is one.

I wouldn’t have objected in the least.
She did not worry Billy in the least.
The weather hadn’t improved in the slightest.

If in the least is used with an adjective, it is put in front of it. In the slightest usually comes after an adjective.

I wasn’t in the least surprised.
She wasn’t worried in the slightest.

The least bit and a bit are used only with adjectives and are placed in front of the adjective.

I’m not the least bit worried.
They’re not a bit interested.

Using modals

5.92 Language is not always used just to exchange information by making simple statements and asking questions. Sometimes we want to make requests, offers, or suggestions, or to express our wishes or intentions. We may want to be polite or tactful, or to indicate our feelings about what we are saying.

We can do all these things by using a set of verbs called modals. Modals are always used with other verbs. They are a special kind of auxiliary verb.

Here is a list of the modals used in English:

can

could

may

might

must

ought to

shall

should

will

would

In some grammars, dare, need, and used to are also referred to as modals. In this grammar, we call these words semi-modals. They are dealt with separately in paragraphs 5.246 to 5.256.

Ought is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than ought to. For a further note about this, see paragraph 5.99.

Modals are sometimes called modal verbs or modal auxiliaries.

5.93 The main uses of modals are explained in paragraphs 5.94 to 5.98. Special features of modals are described in paragraphs 5.99 to 5.106.

Ways of referring to time when using modals are explained in paragraphs 5.107 to 5.114. Ways of using modals to say whether something is possible are explained in paragraphs 5.115 to 5.151. Ways of using modals when interacting with other people are explained in paragraphs 5.152 to 5.220.

Expressions that can be used instead of modals are described in paragraphs 5.221 to 5.245. Semi-modals are explained in paragraphs 5.246 to 5.256.

The main uses of modals

5.94 Modals are mainly used when you want to show your attitude towards what you are saying, or when you are concerned about the effect of what you are saying on the person you are speaking or writing to.

attitude to information

5.95 When you are giving information, you sometimes use modals to show how certain you are that what you are saying is true or correct.

For example, if you say Mr Wilkins is the oldest person in the village, you are giving a definite statement of fact. If you say Mr Wilkins must be the oldest person in the village, the modal must shows that you think Mr Wilkins is the oldest person, because you cannot think of anyone in the village who is older than Mr Wilkins. If you say Mr Wilkins might be the oldest person in the village, the modal might shows that you think it is possible that Mr Wilkins is the oldest person, because he is very old.

attitude to intentions

5.96 You can use modals to show your attitude towards the things you intend to do, or intend not to do. For example, if you say I won’t go without Simon, you are expressing strong unwillingness to go without Simon. If you say I can’t go without Simon, you are saying that there is a special reason for not going without him. If you say I couldn’t go without Simon, you are saying that you are unwilling to go without Simon, because to do so would be wrong, or impossible because of the circumstances.

attitude to people

5.97 When you use language, you are affecting and responding to a particular person or audience. Modals are often used to produce a particular effect, and the modal you choose depends on several factors, such as the relationship you have with your listener, the formality or informality of the situation, and the importance of what you are saying.

For example, it would normally be rude to say to a stranger Open the door, although you might say it in an emergency, or you might say it to a close friend or a child. Normally, you would say to a stranger Will you open the door?, Would you open the door?, or Could you open the door?, depending on how polite you want to be.

use in sentences containing more than one clause

5.98 Modals have special uses in three kinds of sentence containing more than one clause:

they are used in reported clauses

Wilson dropped a hint that he might come.
I felt that I would like to wake her up.

For more information about reported clauses see Chapter 7.

they are used in conditional statements

If he had died when he was 50, he would have died healthy.
If only things had been different, she would have been far happier with George.

For more information about conditionals see paragraphs 8.25 to 8.42.

they are used in purpose clauses.

He stole under the very noses of the store detectives in order that he might be arrested and punished.
He resigned so that he could spend more time with his family.

For more information about purpose clauses see paragraphs 8.47 and 8.48.

Special features of modals

form of following verb

5.99 Modals are followed by the base form of a verb.

I must leave fairly soon.
I think it will be rather nice.
They ought to give you your money back.

Note that ought is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than ought to. Ought is then said to be followed by a to-infinitive.

5.100 Sometimes a modal is followed by the base form of one of the auxiliary verbs have or be, followed by a participle.

When a modal is followed by be and an -ing participle, this shows that you are talking about the present or the future.

People may be watching.
You ought to be doing this.
The play will be starting soon.

When a modal is followed by have and an -ed participle, this shows that you are talking about the past.

You must have heard of him.
She may have gone already.
I ought to have sent the money.

In passive structures, a modal is followed by be or have been and an -ed participle.

The name of the winner will be announced.
They ought to be treated fairly.
Such charges may have been justified.

A modal is never followed by the auxiliary verb do, or by another modal.

no inflections

5.101 Modals do not inflect. This means there is no -s form in the third person singular, and there are no -ing or -ed forms.

There’s nothing I can do about it.
I am sure he can do it.
I must leave fairly soon.

Could is sometimes thought to be the past tense of can. This is discussed in paragraphs 5.110 and 5.111.

negatives

5.102 Negatives are formed by putting a negative word such as not immediately after the modal. Can not is usually written as one word, cannot.

You must not worry.
I cannot go back.

In the case of ought to, you put the negative word after ought.

He ought not to have done so.

In American English, the to of ought to is optional in negative statements.

News organizations ought not treat them so poorly. (American)

After could, might, must, ought, should, and would, not is often shortened to -n’t and is added to the modal.

You mustn’t talk about Ron like this.
Perhaps I oughtn’t to confess this.
He oughtn’t turn away from those who have supported him. (American)

Shall not, will not, and cannot are shortened to shan’t, won’t, and can’t. May not is not shortened at all.

I shan’t get much work done tonight.
He won’t be finished for at least another half an hour.
I can’t go with you.

questions

5.103 Questions are formed by putting the modal in front of the subject. In the case of ought to, you put ought in front of the subject and to after it.

Could you give me an example?
Ought we to tell someone about it?
Mightn’t it be better to leave things as they are?
Why could they not leave her alone?
Must we explain everything we do in such detail?

question tags

5.104 Modals are used in question tags.

They can’t all be right, can they?
You won’t tell anyone, will you?

With a negative tag, the shortened form of the negative is used.

It would be handy, wouldn’t it?
It’ll give you time to think about it, won’t it?

Question tags are explained in paragraphs 5.15 to 5.19.

contractions

5.105 In spoken English, when will and would are used after a pronoun, they are often shortened to -’ll and -’d and added to the pronoun.

I hope you’ll agree.
She’ll be all right.
They’d both call each other horrible names.
If I went back on the train, it’d be better.

Will and would cannot be shortened like this when they are used on their own, without a following verb. For example, you can say Paul said he would come, and I hope he will, but you cannot say Paul said he would come, and I hope he’ll.

USAGE NOTE

5.106 You sometimes use a modal on its own, without a following verb. You do this when you are repeating a modal. For example, if someone says I expect Margaret will come tonight, you can say I hope she will, meaning I hope she will come.

‘I must go.’ – ‘I suppose you must.’
‘You should have become an archaeologist.’ – ‘You’re dead right, I should.’
If you can’t do it, we’ll find someone who can.

You also omit the verb following a modal when this verb has just been used without a modal, or with a different modal. For example, if someone says George has failed his exam, you can say I thought he would, meaning I thought he would fail his exam.

I love him and I always will.
They had come to believe that it not only must go on for ever but that it should.

However you cannot omit the verb be after a modal when you have just used it without a modal. For example, if someone says Is he a teacher?, you cannot say I think he might. You must say I think he might be.

Weather forecasts aren’t very reliable and never will be.
The Board’s methods are not as stringent as they could be.
Relations between the two countries have not been as smooth as they might have been.

For more information on leaving out words in verb phrases see paragraphs 10.60 to 10.81.

Referring to time

5.107 Modals do not usually show whether you are talking about the past, the present, or the future. Usually you indicate this in other ways, for example by putting an auxiliary verb and a participle after the modal. Sometimes the general context makes it clear whether you are talking about a past, present, or future event or situation.

the future: shall and will

5.108 Shall and will are exceptions to this.

Shall always indicates that you are talking about a future event or situation.

I shall do what you suggested.
Eventually we shall find a solution.

Will usually shows that you are talking about a future event or situation.

The farmer will feel more responsible towards his workers.
He will not return for many hours.

However, will is sometimes used to talk about present situations.

You will not feel much love for him at the moment.

This use of will is described in paragraph 5.121.

5.109 Could and would are sometimes described as past tense forms of can and will. However, this is true in only a few minor ways. These are explained in the following paragraphs.

ability in the past: could

5.110 Could can be regarded as the past tense of can if you are simply talking about the ability of a person or thing to do something.

For example, if you are talking about a living person, you can say He can speak Russian and Finnish. If you are talking about a dead person, you can say He could speak Russian and Finnish.

For a fuller explanation of these uses see paragraphs 5.116 to 5.118.

reported speech

5.111 Could and would are sometimes used in place of can and will when you are reporting what someone has said.

For example, if your friend has said I can come, you might report this as He said that he could come. Similarly, if he has said, I will come, you might report this as He said that he would come.

For a full explanation of reported speech see Chapter 7.

things that happened regularly in the past: would

5.112 Would is used to talk about something that happened regularly in the past, but no longer happens.

The other children would tease me and call me names.
A man with a list would come round and say you could go off duty.

When you use would like this, you often add a time expression.

She would often hear him grumbling.
Once in a while she’d give me some lilac to take home.
Every day I’d ring up home and ask if they’d changed their minds.

You can use used to instead of would. Used to is explained in paragraphs 5.252 to 5.256.

thinking about the future: would

5.113 Would is also used in stories to talk about the thoughts that someone is having about the future. For example, if a character in a story is thinking that she will see a girl called Jane the next day, the author might simply say She would see Jane the next day.

He would recognize it when he heard it again.
They would reach the castle some time.

refusing to do something: would not

5.114 When would is used with not to talk about something that happened in the past, it has a special meaning. It is used to say that someone refused to do something.

They just would not believe what we told them.
After all this, I wouldn’t come back to the farm.

The use of modals to express a refusal is explained in paragraphs 5.194 to 5.199.

Talking about possibility

5.115 The following four sections explain the different ways in which modals are used to talk about the possibility of something happening or being done.

Paragraphs 5.116 to 5.119 explain how can and could are used to talk about the ability of a person or thing to do something.

Paragraphs 5.120 to 5.139 explain how modals are used to express degrees of certainty about past, present, and future situations and events.

Paragraphs 5.140 to 5.143 explain how modals are used to say that something is permissible.

Paragraphs 5.144 to 5.151 explain how modals are used to say that something is forbidden or unacceptable.

Talking about ability

skills and abilities: can and could

5.116 Can is used to say that someone has a particular skill or ability.

You can all read and write.
Some people can ski better than others.
He cannot dance. …the girl who can’t act.

Could is used to say that someone had a skill or ability in the past.

When I arrived, I could speak only a little English.
I could barely walk.
He could kick goals from anywhere.

awareness: can and could

5.117 Can is also used to say that someone is aware of something through one of their senses.

I can see you.
I can smell it. Can’t you?

Could is used to say that someone was aware of something through one of their senses on a particular occasion in the past.

I could see a few faint stars in a clear patch of sky.
I could feel my heart bumping.
Police said they could smell alcohol on his breath.

general truths: can and could

5.118 Can and could are also used to express facts that are generally the case, particularly when they relate to something or someone being capable of having a particular effect, or of behaving in a particular way.

It can be very unpleasant.
Art can be used to communicate.
Throwing parties can be hard work.
He could be very stiff, could Haggerty.
He could really frighten me, and yet at the same time he could be the most gentle and courteous of men.

BE CAREFUL

5.119 You cannot use can or could to say that someone or something will have a particular ability in the future. Instead you use be able to or be possible to.

Be able to and be possible to can also be used to talk about someone’s ability to do something in the present or the past.

Be able to and be possible to are dealt with in paragraphs 5.222 to 5.229.

Talking about likelihood

5.120 The following paragraphs explain how modals are used to express different degrees of certainty about past, present, and future situations and events.

Paragraphs 5.121 to 5.127 explain the main ways in which modals are used to express degrees of certainty.

Paragraphs 5.128 to 5.132 explain special uses of modals when talking about possible future situations.

Paragraphs 5.133 to 5.139 explain special uses of modals when talking about possible situations in the past.

assuming that something is the case: will and would

5.121 You use will when you are assuming that something is the case, and you do not think there is any reason to doubt it.

Those of you who are familiar with the game will know this.
He will be a little out of touch, although he’s a rapid learner.
She will have forgotten all about it by now.

Similarly, you use will not or won’t when you are assuming that something is not the case.

The audience will not be aware of such exact details.
You won’t know Gordon. He’s our new doctor.

After you, you can use would instead of will, if you want to be more polite.

You would agree that the United States should be involved in assisting these countries.

certainty: would and should

5.122 You also use would to say that something is certain to happen in particular circumstances.

Even an illiterate person would understand that.
Few people would agree with this as a general principle.
A picnic wouldn’t be any fun without you.

After I, you can use should instead of would.

The very first thing I should do would be to teach you how to cook.
I should be very unhappy on the continent.

This is unusual in American English, which normally uses would after I.

belief: must and cannot

5.123 You use must to show that you believe something is the case, because of particular facts or circumstances.

Oh, you must be Sylvia’s husband.
Fashion must account for a small percentage of sales.
This article must have been written by a woman.

When you are indicating that something is not the case, you use cannot. You do not use must not. (See paragraph 5.126.)

The two conflicting messages cannot possibly both be true.
You can’t have forgotten me.
He can’t have said that. He just can’t.

present possibility: could, might, and may

5.124 You use could, might, or may to say that there is a possibility of something happening or being the case. May is slightly more formal than could or might; otherwise there is very little difference in meaning between these modals.

Don’t eat it. It could be poisonous.
His route from the bus stop might be the same as yours.
In rare cases the jaw may be broken during extraction.

If you put well after could, might, or may, you are saying that it is fairly likely that something is the case.

It could well be that the economic situation is getting better.
His predictions could well have come true.
You might well be right.
I think that may well have been the intention.

negative possibility: might not and may not

5.125 You use might not or may not to say that it is possible that something is not the case.

He might not be in England at all.
That mightn’t be true.
That may not sound very imposing.

impossibility: could not and cannot

5.126 You use could not or cannot to say that it is impossible that something is the case.

…knowledge which could not have been gained in any other way.
It couldn’t possibly be poison.
He cannot know everything that is going on.
You can’t talk to the dead.

strong assertion: could not with comparatives

5.127 Could is sometimes used in negative constructions with the comparative form of an adjective. You use could like this to say that it is not possible for someone or something to have more of a particular quality.

I couldn’t be happier.
You couldn’t be more wrong.
The setting couldn’t have been lovelier.
He could hardly have felt more ashamed of himself.

talking about the future

5.128 The following paragraphs explain how modals are used when you are talking about possible future situations. The uses of must, cannot, could, might, and may are similar to their uses when you are talking about possible situations in the present.

certainty: will

5.129 You use will to say that something is certain to happen or be the case in the future.

They will see everything.
The price of food will go up.
The service will have been running for a year in May.

Be going to can also be used to say that something is certain to happen in the future. This use of be going to is dealt with in paragraph 5.231.

certainty: shall, must, and cannot

5.130 Shall is also used to say that something is certain to happen. You usually use shall when you are talking about events and situations over which you have some control. For example, you can use shall when you are making a resolution or a promise.

I shall be leaving as soon as I am ready.
Very well, my dear. You shall have the coat.
Of course he shall have water.
‘You’ll make a lot of money.’ – ‘I shall one day.’

This usage is considered very formal in American English and is not often used.

You use must to say that something is certain to happen because of particular facts or circumstances.

This research must eventually lead to computer decision-making.

You use cannot to say that something is certain not to happen because of particular facts or circumstances. You do not use must not.

A team cannot hope to win consistently without a good coach.
The bad weather can’t last.

expectation: should and ought to

5.131 You use should or ought to to say that you expect something to happen.

She should be back any time now.
This course should be quite interesting for you.
The Court of Appeal ought to be able to help you.
It ought to get better as it goes along.

Should and ought to are also used when you are talking about the importance of doing something. This use is explained in paragraph 5.213.

future possibility: could, might, and may

5.132 You use could, might, or may to say that it is possible that a particular thing will happen.

England’s next fixture in Salzburg could be the decisive match.
The river could easily overflow.
They might be able to remember what he said.
Clerical work may be available for two students who want to learn about publishing.

If you put well after could, might, or may, you are indicating that it is fairly likely that something will happen or be the case.

When it is finished it may well be the largest cathedral in the world.
We might well get injured.

If you put possibly or conceivably after could, might, or may, you are indicating that it is possible, but fairly unlikely, that something will happen or be the case.

These conditions could possibly be accepted.
Rates could conceivably rise by as much as a whole percentage point.

talking about the past

5.133 The following paragraphs explain how you use modals when you are talking about possible situations in the past.

expectation: should have, ought to have

5.134 You use should or ought to with have to say that you expect something to have happened already.

Dear Mom, you should have heard by now that I’m O.K.

You also use should or ought to with have to say that something was expected to happen, although it has not in fact happened.

Muskie should have won by a huge margin.
She ought to have been home by now.

possibility: would have

5.135 You use would with have to talk about actions and events that were possible in the past, although they did not in fact happen.

Denial would have been useless.
I would have said yes, but Julie persuaded us to stay at home.
You wouldn’t have pushed him, would you?

possibility: could have, might have

5.136 You use could or might with have to say that there was a possibility of something happening in the past, although it did not in fact happen.

It could have been awful.
I could easily have spent the whole year on it.
You could have got a job last year.
A lot of men died who might have been saved.
You might have found it very difficult.

uncertainty: could have, might have, may have

5.137 You also use could, might, or may with have to say that it is possible that something was the case, but you do not know whether it was the case or not.

It is just possible that such a small creature could have preyed on dinosaur eggs.
They might have moved house by now.
I may have seemed to be overreacting.

negative possibility: might not have, may not have

5.138 You use might not or may not with have to say that it is possible that something did not happen or was not the case.

They might not have considered me as their friend.
My father mightn’t have been to blame.
The parents may not have been ready for this news.

impossibility: could have with negative

5.139 You use could with a negative and have to say that it is impossible that something happened or was the case.

It couldn’t have been wrong.
The money was not, and never could have been, the property of the organization.

Talking about permission

permission: can

5.140 Can is used to say that someone is allowed to do something.

You can drive a van up to 3-ton capacity using an ordinary driving licence.

If you are giving permission for something, you use can.

You can borrow that pen if you want to.
You can go off duty now.
She can go with you.

formal permission: may

5.141 In more formal situations, may is used to give permission.

You may speak now.
They may do exactly as they like.

permission in the past: could

5.142 Could is used to say that someone was allowed to do something in the past.

We could go to any part of the island we wanted to.

BE CAREFUL

5.143 You cannot use can or could to say that someone will be allowed to do something in the future. Instead you use be able to.

Be able to is dealt with in paragraphs 5.222 to 5.229.

Saying that something is unacceptable

5.144 Modals are often used in negative structures to say that an action is forbidden or unacceptable.

saying that something is forbidden: cannot

5.145 Cannot is used to say that something is forbidden, for example because of a rule or law.

Children cannot bathe except in the presence of two lifesavers.
We’re awfully sorry we can’t let you stay here.

saying that something is forbidden: may not

5.146 May not is used in a similar way to cannot, but is more formal.

You may not make amendments to your application once we have received it.
This material may not be published, broadcast, or redistributed in any manner.

saying that something is forbidden: will not

5.147 Will not is used to tell someone very firmly that they are not allowed to do a particular thing. Usually, the speaker has the power to prevent the hearer from doing this thing.

‘I’ll just go upstairs.’ – ‘You will not.’
Until we have cured you, you won’t be leaving here.

saying that something is forbidden: shall not

5.148 Shall not is used to say formally that a particular thing is not allowed. Shall not is often used in written rules, laws, and agreements.

Persons under 18 shall not be employed in nightwork.
Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State.

Shan’t is used in a similar way to will not and won’t.

You shan’t leave without my permission.

saying that something is forbidden: imperatives

5.149 You can also say that something is not allowed by using an imperative sentence. Imperative sentences are explained in paragraph 5.4 and in paragraphs 5.35 to 5.39.

undesirable actions: should not

5.150 Should not is used to tell someone that an action is unacceptable or undesirable.

You should not take her help for granted.
You shouldn’t do that.
You shouldn’t be so unfriendly.

undesirable actions: must not

5.151 Must not is used to say much more firmly that something is unacceptable or undesirable.

You must not accept it.
You mustn’t do that.
You mustn’t breathe a word of this to anyone.

Interacting with other people

5.152 You often say things in order to get someone to behave in a particular way. For example, you may want someone to take a particular action, to accept an offer, or to give their permission for something to be done.

In these situations, modals are often used. The modal you choose depends on several factors. The main ones are:

the formality or informality of the situation

the relationship between yourself and the person you are speaking to

the degree of politeness you want to show.

In particular situations, other factors can be important. For example, if you are making an offer or suggestion, the modal you choose may depend on how persuasive you want to be.

5.153 The following sections explain how to use modals in different situations.

Paragraphs 5.154 to 5.170 explain how to give instructions and make requests.

Paragraphs 5.171 to 5.179 explain how to make an offer or an invitation.

Paragraphs 5.180 to 5.187 explain how to make suggestions.

Paragraphs 5.188 to 5.193 explain how to state an intention.

Paragraphs 5.194 to 5.199 explain how to express unwillingness or a refusal to do something.

Paragraphs 5.200 to 5.208 explain how to express a wish.

Paragraphs 5.209 to 5.213 explain how to indicate the importance of doing something.

Paragraphs 5.214 to 5.220 explain various ways of introducing what you are going to say.

Giving instructions and making requests

5.154 When you give an instruction or make a request, you usually use a modal in an interrogative sentence.

You use will, would, can, or could with you to tell someone to do something, or to ask someone to do something.

You use can, could, may, or might with I or we or with other personal pronouns or noun phrases to ask someone’s permission to do something.

Instructions and requests are always made more polite by adding please. Please and other markers of politeness are explained in paragraph 5.170.

instructions and appeals for help

5.155 Will, would, and could are used with you in two ways:

you use them to give an instruction or an order

you use them to ask for help or assistance.

instructions and appeals for help: will

5.156 Will is used to give an instruction or order in a fairly direct way. It is slightly less forceful than using the imperative.

Will you pick those toys up please?
Will you pack up and leave at once, please.

Will is used to ask for help in fairly informal situations.

Mummy, will you help me?

instructions and appeals for help: would

5.157 When would is used to give an instruction or order, it is more polite than will.

Would you tell her that Adrian phoned?
Would you ask them to leave, please?

When would is used to ask for help, it is less informal and more polite than will.

Would you do me a favour?

instructions and appeals for help: could

5.158 When could is used to give an instruction or order, it is more polite than would.

Could you follow me please?
Could you just switch the projector on behind you?

When could is used to ask for help, it is more polite than would.

Could you show me how to do this?

appeals for help: can

5.159 Can can be used with you to ask for help. You usually use can when you are not sure whether someone will be able to help you or not.

Oh hello. Can you help me? I’ve been trying this number for ten minutes and I can’t get through.

requests

5.160 Can, could, may, and might are used with I or we when you are asking for something, or are asking permission to do something.

These modals can also be used with he, she, or they, or with other noun phrases, when you are asking for something on behalf of someone else. For example, you can say Can she borrow your car? or Could my mother use your telephone?

requests: can

5.161 Can is used to make a request in a simple and direct way.

Can I ask a question?
Can I change this?’ I asked the box office lady, offering her my ticket.

requests: could

5.162 Could is more polite than can.

Could I have a bottle of lemonade, please?
Could I just interrupt a minute?

requests: can’t and couldn’t

5.163 You can make a request sound more persuasive by using can’t or couldn’t instead of can or could. For example, you can say Can’t I come with you? instead of Can I come with you?

Can’t we have some music?
Couldn’t we stay here?

requests: may and might

5.164 May and might are more formal than can and could. In the past, people were taught that, when asking for something, it was correct to say may rather than can, and might rather than could. However can and could are now generally used. Requests beginning with might are unusual, and are considered by most people to be old-fashioned.

May I have a cigarette?
May we have something to eat?
May I ask what your name is?
Might I inquire if you are the owner?

instructions: would like

5.165 Would like can be used with I or we in a declarative sentence to give an instruction or order. It is followed by you and a to-infinitive clause.

OK, everyone, I would like you to get into a circle.

Want can be used in a similar way to would like. This use of want is dealt with in paragraph 5.234.

firm instructions: will

5.166 An instruction or order can also be given using will in a declarative sentence. This form is used when the speaker is angry or impatient.

You will go and get one of your parents immediately.
You will give me those now.

formal instructions: shall

5.167 Shall is sometimes used in a declarative sentence to give an instruction or order. This is a very formal use.

There shall be no further communication between you.

imperatives

5.168 The imperative can also be used to give an instruction or order. This use is explained in paragraph 5.35.

requests: would like, should like

5.169 You can use would like or (in British English only) should like in a declarative sentence to make a request. Would like and should like are followed by a to-infinitive clause or a noun phrase.

I would like to ask you one question.
I’d like to have a little talk with you.
I should like a list of your customers over the past year.

polite additions to requests

5.170 All the ways of giving instructions or making requests described above can be made more polite by using please.

Can I speak to Nicola, please?
Please may I have the key?

You can also make a request more polite by adding the name of the person you are addressing at the beginning or end of your question.

Martin, could you make us a drink?
Can I talk to you, Howard?

Another way of making a request more polite is to add an adverb such as perhaps or possibly after the subject of the verb.

Could I perhaps bring a friend with me?
May I possibly have a word with you?

In spoken English, you can make a request more polite by adding just after the subject of the verb.

Could you just come into my office for a minute?

Making an offer or an invitation

5.171 Modals are often used to make an offer or an invitation.

You use will or would with you to ask someone to accept something, or to make an invitation.

You use can, may, shall, or should with I or we when you are offering to help someone.

Some of these structures are similar to those described in the previous section.

offers and invitations: will

5.172 Will is used with you in an interrogative sentence to offer something to someone, or to make an invitation in a fairly informal way. You use will when you know the person you are talking to quite well.

Will you have a whisky, Doctor?
Will you stay for lunch?

offers and invitations: would and wouldn’t

5.173 A more polite way of offering something or making an invitation is to use would with a verb that means to like.

Would you like a drink?
Would you care to stay with us?

If you want to sound more persuasive without seeming impolite or insistent, you can use wouldn’t instead of would.

Wouldn’t you like to come with me?
Wouldn’t you care for some more coffee?

offers of help: can

5.174 When you are offering to do something for someone, you usually use can followed by I or we.

Can I help you with the dishes?
Can we give you a lift into town?

offers of help: may

5.175 May is also used when you are offering to do something for someone. It is less common than can, and is rather formal and old-fashioned.

May I help you?
May I take your coat?

offers of help: shall and should

5.176 You can also use shall or should when you are offering to do something.

If you are offering to do something that you can do immediately, or you are fairly confident that your offer will be accepted, you use shall.

Shall I shut the door?
Shall I spell that for you?

If you talking about a less likely or less immediate situation, or if you are uncertain whether your offer will be accepted, you use should.

Should I give her a ring?
Should I put all these meetings on my calendar?

emphasizing ability: can

5.177 If you want to emphasize your ability to help, you can make an offer using can in a declarative sentence.

I have a car. I can drop you off on my way home.
I can pop in at the shop tomorrow.

persuasive invitations: must and have to

5.178 If you want to make an invitation in a very persuasive way, you can use a declarative sentence beginning with you and must or have to. Have to is more common in American English.

You must join us for drinks this evening.
You have to come and visit me.

You only use must and have to like this with people who you know well.

5.179 Other ways of making an offer or invitation are dealt with in paragraph 5.42.

Making suggestions

5.180 Suggestions can be made by using a modal in a declarative or interrogative sentence. The subject of the sentence is usually we or you.

suggesting: could

5.181 You can make a suggestion by using could in a declarative sentence or couldn’t in an interrogative sentence.

If the business doesn’t work out we could sell it.
You could have a nursery there.
Couldn’t you just build more factories?
Couldn’t some international agreement be concluded to ban these weapons?

suggesting: should and ought to

5.182 If you are making a suggestion and you want to indicate that you feel strongly that it is a good idea, you can use should or ought to.

You should ask Norry about this.
I think you should get in touch with your solicitor.
We ought to celebrate. Let’s get a bottle of champagne.
I think you ought to try a different approach.

A more polite way of making a suggestion that you feel strongly about is to use shouldn’t or oughtn’t to in an interrogative sentence.

Shouldn’t we at least give her a chance?
Oughtn’t we to phone the police?

persuading: must

5.183 If you are suggesting an action and you are trying to persuade someone that it should be done, you use must. You only use must like this when you are talking to someone you know well.

You must say hello to your daughter.
We must go to the place, perhaps have a weekend there.

polite suggestions: might

5.184 If you want to make a suggestion in a very polite way, you can use might with you in a declarative sentence. Might is followed by a verb meaning to like or to want.

You might want to comment on his latest proposal.
I thought perhaps you might like to come along with me.

You can also make a polite suggestion by using a sentence beginning with It might be, followed by a noun phrase or adjective and a to-infinitive clause.

I think it might be a good idea to stop now.
It might be better to wait a while.

suggesting: might as well, may as well

5.185 You can also make suggestions using the expressions might as well and may as well.

You use might as well when what you are suggesting seems to be the only sensible course of action, although you are not enthusiastic about it.

He might as well take the car.
We might as well call the whole thing off.

You use may as well to show that it is not important to you whether your suggestion is accepted or not.

You may as well open them all.
We may as well give her a copy.

suggesting: shall

5.186 You can make a suggestion about what you and someone else could do by using an interrogative sentence beginning with shall and we.

Shall we go and see a film?
Shall we go on to question number six?
Shall we talk about something different now?

5.187 Other ways of making suggestions are described in paragraph 5.46.

Stating an intention

5.188 Intentions are usually stated by using will, shall, or must in a declarative sentence. The subject is I or we.

intentions: will

5.189 The usual way to state an intention is to use I or we with will. The shortened forms I’ll and we’ll are very common.

I will call you when I am ready.
We will stay here.
I’ll write again some time.
We’ll discuss that later.

You state your intention not to do something using will not or won’t.

I will not follow her.
I won’t keep you any longer.
We won’t let them through the gate.

5.190 You can show that you are very determined to do something by using the full form I will or we will and stressing will.

You can show that you are very determined not to do something either by using I won’t or we won’t and stressing won’t, or by using I will not or we will not and stressing not.

intentions: shall

5.191 Another way of stating an intention is to use I or we with shall.

I shall be leaving soon.
I shall make some enquiries and call you back.
We shall continue to monitor his progress.

This use is slightly old-fashioned, rather formal, and uncommon in American English.

You can show that you are very determined not to do something by using shall not or shan’t. This is more emphatic than using will not or won’t.

I shall not disclose his name.
I shan’t go back there.

The form shan’t is not used in American English.

intentions: must

5.192 If you want to show that it is important that you do something, you can use I must.

I must leave fairly soon.
I must ask her about that.
I must call my mum–it’s her birthday today.

5.193 Ways of stating an intention without using a modal are explained in paragraphs 5.235 to 5.238.

Expressing unwillingness or refusal

5.194 A refusal can be expressed by using a modal in a negative declarative sentence. The subject is usually I or we, but other personal pronouns or noun phrases can be used.

refusal: will not and won’t

5.195 If you want to say firmly that you refuse to do something, you use will not or won’t.

I will not hear a word said against the National Health Service.
I won’t let this happen.

You can just say I won’t.

‘Tell me your secret.’ – ‘I won’t. It wouldn’t be a secret if I told you.’
It isn’t that I won’t. I can’t.

You can use won’t to say that someone else is refusing to do something.

He won’t give her the money.

refusal: would not

5.196 If you want to say that you refused to do something in the past, you use would not or wouldn’t.

He thought I was a freak because I wouldn’t carry a weapon.

unwillingness: cannot

5.197 If you want to show that you have strong feelings that prevent you from doing something, you use cannot or can’t.

I cannot leave everything for him.
I can’t give you up.

unwillingness: couldn’t

5.198 Couldn’t is used in two ways to express unwillingness to do something.

You use it to show that you are unwilling to do something because you are afraid, embarrassed, or disgusted.

I couldn’t possibly go out now.
I couldn’t let him touch me.

You use it to indicate that you are unwilling to do something because you think it would be unfair or morally wrong.

I couldn’t leave Hilary to cope on her own.
I couldn’t take your last chocolate.

5.199 Other ways of expressing refusal and unwillingness are described in paragraphs 5.239 to 5.241.

Expressing a wish

5.200 Wishes can be expressed by using a modal in a declarative sentence.

wishes: would

5.201 You can say what someone wants by using would followed by a verb meaning to like. After the verb meaning to like you put a to-infinitive clause or a noun phrase.

I would like to know the date.
I would prefer to say nothing about this problem.
We’d like to keep you here.
Oh, I hope it will be twins. I’d love twins.

5.202 You can say what someone does not want by using would not.

I would not like to see it.
We wouldn’t like to lose you.

Normally, when you are using would with like to say what someone does not want, you put not after would. If you put not after like, you change the meaning slightly.

For example, if you say I would not like to be a student, you mean you are not a student and do not want to be one. But if you say I would like not to be a student, you mean you are a student and do not want to be one.

They would like not to have to go through all that.

You can also say what someone does not want by using would with hate.

I would hate to move to another house now.
Personally, I would hate to be dragged into this dispute.

wishes: should

5.203 You can also say what someone wants or does not want by using should. Should is less common than would, and is slightly more formal.

I should like to live in the country.
I should hate to see them disappear.

preference: would rather, would sooner

5.204 You can say that someone prefers one situation to another by using would rather or would sooner.

He would rather have left it.
She’d rather be left alone.
I’d sooner walk than do any of these things.

wishes: would have

5.205 If you want to say that someone wanted something to happen, although it did not happen, you use would have and an -ed participle.

I would have liked to hear more from the patient.
She would have liked to remain just where she was.

USAGE NOTE

5.206 Another way of saying that you want something is to use wouldn’t with a verb or expression that is normally used to refuse something, such as mind or object to.

I wouldn’t mind being a manager of a store.
‘Drink, Ted?’ – ‘I wouldn’t say no, Bryan.’

regret: would that

5.207 In very old-fashioned English, would is used without a subject to express a wish that a situation might be different, or to express regret that something did not happen in the past. Would is followed by a that-clause.

‘Are they better off now than they were two years ago?’ – ‘Would that they were.’
Would that the developments had been so easy.

When I, he, she, or it is the subject of the that-clause, the verb is usually were, not was.

Would that you were here tonight.
Two years ago we were told that they would be much better off by now. Would that they were.

hopes and wishes: may

5.208 In very formal English, may is used to express a hope or wish.

Long may they continue to do it.
May he justify our hopes and rise to the top.

Indicating importance

5.209 Modals can be used in declarative sentences to say that it is important that something is done. Different modals indicate different degrees of importance.

importance: must

5.210 Must is used in three common ways to talk about the importance of doing something.

You use must with you or we to urge someone to do something, because you feel it is important. Must not is used to urge someone not to do something.

You must come at once.
We must accept the truth about ourselves.
You must not worry.
You mustn’t let her suffer for it.

Have to, have got to, and need to can be used instead of must to talk about the importance of doing something. This is explained in paragraphs 5.242 and 5.243.

You use must to say that something is required by a rule or law.

People who qualify must apply within six months.
European Community standards must be met.

You use must to say that it is necessary that something happens or is done, in order that something else can happen.

Meadows must have rain.
To travel properly you must have a valid ticket.

necessity: will have to, will need to

5.211 If you want to say that an action will be necessary in the future, you use will have to or will need to.

They will have to pay for the repairs.
Mr Smith will have to make the funeral arrangements.
You will need to cover it with some kind of sheeting.
Electric clocks will need to be reset.

necessity: shall have to

5.212 Shall have to is sometimes used instead of will have to after I or we.

I shall have to speak about that to Peter.
We shall have to assume that you are right.

This is a slightly formal use, and is rarely used in American English.

importance: should and ought to

5.213 Should and ought to are used in three different ways when you are talking about the importance of doing something.

You use should or ought to when you are trying to help someone by advising them to do something.

Carbon steel knives should be wiped clean after use.
You should claim your pension 3-4 months before you retire.
You ought to try a different approach.

You use should or ought to when you are saying that something is the right or correct thing to do.

We should send her a postcard.
The judges should offer constructive criticism.
We ought to stay with him.
You ought not to do that.

You use should or ought to with have and an -ed participle to say that something was desirable in the past, although it did not in fact happen.

One sailor should have been asleep and one on watch.
We ought to have stayed in tonight.
A more junior member of staff ought to have done the work.

You also use should and ought to to say that you expect something to happen. This use is explained in paragraph 5.131.

Introducing what you are going to say

5.214 Sometimes you introduce what you are going to say by using a modal followed by a verb such as say or ask that refers to the act of saying something. You can also combine a modal with a verb such as think or believe that refers to the holding of an opinion.

You use a modal in order to sound more polite, or to show your feelings about what you are going to say.

In structures like these, the subject is usually I. Sometimes you use an impersonal structure beginning with it or you. For example, instead of saying I ought to mention that he had never been there, you can say It ought to be mentioned that he had never been there.

importance: must

5.215 If you feel strongly that what you are saying is important, you use must.

I must apologize to you.
I must object.
It must be said that he has a point.

importance: should and ought to

5.216 If you feel that it is important or appropriate that something is said, you indicate that you are going to say it by using should or ought to.

I should explain at this point that there are two different sorts of microscope.
It should also be said that I learned a great deal from the experience.
I ought to stress that this was not a trial.
Perhaps I ought to conclude with a slightly more light-hearted question.

politeness: can and could

5.217 If you want to say something during a discussion, you can indicate politely that you are going to say it by using can.

Perhaps I can mention another possibility.
If I can just intervene for one moment…

If you want to be even more polite, you use could.

Perhaps I could just illustrate this by mentioning two cases that I know of personally.
Perhaps I could just ask you this…

5.218 You also use can and could when you are mentioning an opinion or a way of describing something.

Can suggests that you approve of the opinion or description.

Such behaviour can be a reaction to deep emotional upset.

Could is more neutral.

You could argue that this is irrelevant.
You could call it a political offence.

approval: may and might

5.219 May and might can also be used to mention an opinion or a way of describing something.

May suggests that you approve of the opinion or description. It is more formal than can.

This, it may be added, greatly strengthened him in his resolve.

Might also suggests that you approve of the opinion or description. You use might when you think there is a possibility that the person you are talking to will disagree with you.

You might say she’s entitled to get angry.
That, one might argue, is not too terrible.

politeness: should and would

5.220 If you are stating an opinion of your own, you can show politely that you are going to state it by using should.

I should think it would last quite a long time.

Would is used in a similar way, but is less common.

I would guess it may well come down to cost.

Expressions used instead of modals

5.221 Several ordinary verbs and fixed expressions are used to express the same attitudes and ideas as modals. These verbs and expressions are explained in the following paragraphs. Each group of paragraphs corresponds to an earlier section in the chapter dealing with the use of modals in a particular type of situation.

saying whether something is possible

5.222 Be able to and be possible to can be used instead of can and could to say whether or not something is possible.

The subject of be able to and be unable to usually refers to a person or group of people, but it can refer to any living thing. It can also refer to something organized or operated by people, such as a company, a country, or a machine.

The subject of be possible to is always the impersonal pronoun it.

5.223 If you want to say that it is possible for someone or something to do something, you can use be able to.

All members are able to claim travelling expenses.
The college is able to offer a wide choice of subjects.

You use be able to with a negative to say that it is not possible for someone or something to do something.

They are not able to run fast or throw a ball.

5.224 You also use be unable to to say that it is not possible for someone or something to do something.

I am having medical treatment and I’m unable to work.
We are unable to comment on this.

5.225 You also use be possible to with it as the subject to say that something is possible. You usually use this expression to say that something is possible for people in general, rather than for an individual person.

It is possible to insure against loss of earnings. Is it possible to programme a computer to speak?

If you use be possible to to say that something is possible for a particular person or group, you put for and a noun phrase after possible.

It is possible for us to measure his progress.
It’s possible for each department to support new members.

You use be possible to with a negative to say that something is not possible.

It is not possible to quantify the effect.

5.226 You can also use be impossible to to say that something is not possible.

It is impossible to fix the exact moment in time when it happened.
It is impossible for him to watch TV and talk.

5.227 To change the tense of be able to, be unable to, be possible to, or be impossible to, you simply change the form of be to an appropriate simple form.

The doctor will be able to spend more time with the patient.
Their parents were unable to send them any money.
It was not possible to dismiss his behaviour as a contributing factor.
It was impossible for her to obey this order.

5.228 All modals except can and could can be used with these expressions.

A machine ought to be able to do this.
The United States would be unable to produce any wood.
It may be impossible to predict which way things will develop.

5.229 Used to can be used with be able to and be possible to.

You used to be able to go to the doctor for that.
It used to be possible to buy second-hand wigs.

For more information about used to, see paragraphs 5.252 to 5.256.

saying how likely something is

5.230 You can use have to or have got to instead of must to show that you think something is the case, because of particular facts or circumstances.

‘That looks about right.’ – ‘It has to be.’
Money has got to be the reason.

5.231 You can use be going to instead of will to say that something is certain to happen or be the case in the future.

The children are going to be fishermen or farmers.
Life is going to be a bit easier from now on.

5.232 You can use be bound to or be sure to to say emphatically that something is certain to happen in the future.

Marion’s bound to be back soon.
It was bound to happen sooner or later.
The roads are sure to be busy this weekend.

giving instructions and making requests

5.233 Instead of beginning a question with can or could when you are making a request, you can begin it with is and the impersonal pronoun it. After it, you put an expression such as all right and either a to-infinitive clause or an if-clause.

Is it all right for him to come in and sit and read his paper? Is it okay if we have lunch here?

5.234 You can use want instead of would like to give an instruction or make a request. Want is more direct and less polite than would like.

I want you to turn to the front of the atlas.
I want to know what you think about this.
I want to speak to the manager.

Wanted is also sometimes used. It is more polite than want.

I wanted to ask if you could give us any advice.
Good morning, I wanted to book a holiday in the South of France.

stating an intention

5.235 You can use be going to instead of will to state an intention.

I am going to talk to Boris.
I’m going to show you our little school.

5.236 You use intend to to state a fairly strong intention.

I intend to go to Cannes for a month in August.
I don’t intend to stay very long.

5.237 You use be determined to or be resolved to to indicate a very strong intention to do something. Be resolved to is rather formal.

I’m determined to try.
She was resolved to marry a rich American.

5.238 You can use have to or have got to instead of must to show that it is important that you do something.

I have to get home now.
It’s something I have got to overcome.

expressing unwillingness

5.239 You can use I am not instead of I will not to say firmly that you are unwilling to do or accept something. I am not is followed by an -ing participle.

I am not staying in this hospital. I’m not having dirty rugs.

5.240 You can use refuse instead of will not when you are refusing to do something. Refuse is followed by a to-infinitive clause.

I refuse to list possible reasons.
I refuse to pay.

5.241 You can use unwilling or reluctant with a to-infinitive clause to say that someone is not willing to do or accept something.

He is unwilling to answer the questions.
They seemed reluctant to talk about what had happened.

You can use several adjectives after not to say that someone is unwilling to do or accept something.

Exporters are not willing to supply goods on credit.
I’m not prepared to teach him anything.
Thompson is not keen to see history repeat itself.

indicating importance

5.242 You can use have to or have got to instead of must to say that something is necessary or extremely important.

We have to look more closely at the record of their work together.
This has got to be put right.
You’ve got to be able to communicate.

5.243 Need to can also be used instead of must or have to.

We need to change the balance of power.
You do not need to worry.

5.244 You can also say that something is important or necessary by using a sentence beginning with the impersonal pronoun it, followed by is, an adjective such as important or necessary, and a that-clause.

It is important that you should know precisely what is going on. It is essential that immediate action should be taken. It is vital that a mother takes time to get to know her baby.

Important and necessary can also be followed by a to-infinitive clause.

It’s important to recognize what industry needs at this moment. It is necessary to examine this claim before we proceed any further.

5.245 You can use had better instead of should or ought to to say that something is the right or correct thing to do. You use had better with I or we to show an intention. You use it with you when you are giving advice or a warning.

I think I had better show this to my brother.
He decided that we had better meet.
You’d better go.

Semi-modals

5.246 Dare, need, and used to can be used as modals, or they can be used in other ways. When they are used as modals, they have some characteristics that other modals do not have. For these reasons, they are sometimes called semi-modals.

The use of dare and need as modals is explained in paragraphs 5.247 to 5.251.

The use of used to as a modal is explained in paragraphs 5.252 to 5.256.

dare and need

5.247 When dare and need are used as modals, they have the same meaning as when they are followed by a to-infinitive clause. However, they are normally used as modals only in negative sentences and in questions.

Nobody dare disturb him.
No parent dare let their child roam free.
He told her that she need not worry.
How dare you speak to me like that?
Need you go so soon?

Need not is often shortened to needn’t. Dare not is sometimes shortened to daren’t in British English but this contraction is very rare in American English.

I daren’t ring Jeremy again.
We needn’t worry about that.

inflected forms

5.248 Unlike other modals, dare has some inflected forms that are occasionally used.

In the present simple, the third person singular form can be either dare or dares.

He dare not admit he had forgotten her name.
What nobody dares suggest is that the children are simply spoilt.

In the past simple, either dare or dared can be used. Dare is more formal than dared.

He dare not take his eyes off his assailant.
He dared not show he was pleased.

Need is not inflected when it is used as a modal.

use with other modals

5.249 Normally, modals cannot be used with other modals. However dare can be used with will, would, should, and might.

No one will dare override what the towns decide.
I wouldn’t dare go to there alone.

use with do

5.250 Unlike other modals, dare can be used with the auxiliary verb do.

We do not dare examine it.
Don’t you ever dare come here again!

In ordinary speech, did not dare and didn’t dare are much more common than dared not or dare not.

She did not dare leave the path.
I didn’t dare speak or move.
We didn’t dare say that we would prefer to go home.

other uses of dare and need

5.251 Besides being used as modals, dare and need are used in other ways in which they are not followed by the base form of another verb. Both verbs can be followed by a to-infinitive clause, and need is a common transitive verb.

used to

5.252 Used to cannot be used with other modals.

She used to get quite cross with Lily.
…these Westerns that used to do so well in Hollywood.
What did we use to call it?

However, used to can be used with the auxiliary verb do. This is explained in paragraphs 5.255 and 5.256.

Used is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than used to. Used is then said to be followed by a to-infinitive.

5.253 Used to is used to say that something happened regularly or existed in the past, although it no longer happens or exists.

Used to is similar to would when it is used to describe repeated actions in the past. However, unlike would, used to can also describe past states and situations.

I’m not quite as mad as I used to be.
You used to bring me flowers all the time.

The use of would to talk about things that happened regularly in the past is dealt with in paragraph 5.112.

omitting the following verb phrase

5.254 Used to can be used on its own without a following verb phrase when it is clear from the context what the subject matter is.

People don’t work as hard as they used to.
I don’t feel British any more. Not as much as I used to.

negatives

5.255 Used to is not common in negative structures.

In informal speech, people sometimes make negative statements by putting didn’t in front of used to. This is sometimes represented as use to.

They didn’t use to mind what we did.

However, many people consider this use to be incorrect.

Another way to form the negative is to put never in front of used to.

Where I was before, we never used to have posters on the walls.

Sometimes not is put between used and to. This is a fairly formal use.

It used not to be taxable.

Some grammar books give a contracted form for the negative, usedn’t to or usen’t to. This is now rarely used, and is thought to be very old-fashioned.

questions

5.256 You normally form questions with used to by putting did in front of the subject, followed by used to or use to. Wh-questions are formed by putting the wh-word at the beginning, followed by used to.

Did she used to be nice?
What used to annoy you most about him?

You can form negative questions by putting didn’t in front of the subject, followed by the subject and used to or use to.

Didn’t they use to mind?

In more formal English, did is put in front of the subject and not after it, followed by used to or use to.

Did she not use to smile?