McGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage, 2nd Edition (2013)

Part II. How to Find and Correct Mistakes

Chapter 13. Semicolons and Colons

This brief chapter focuses on two punctuation marks that are both notably similar and profoundly different: the semicolon (;) and the colon (:). On one hand, they certainly appear similar, and both can—under special circumstances—be used when writers are creating lists. On the other hand, it is actually relatively rare for semicolons and colons to be used in the same sentence; semicolons are usually not needed at all in a list, while a colon is used only with certain types of sentence structures.

In this chapter, we clarify the purposes of these punctuation marks and show how they are easier to use than many writers believe.

1. Semicolons: A semicolon has two basic functions, yet only one of these is truly important for the vast majority of writing most people do. And this one function—separating two parts of a compound sentence—is much easier to achieve than many people believe. Following is an example:

On average, a coffee tree produces a pound of coffee beans per year; it takes many such trees to satisfy the increasing demand for coffee.

In this section, we focus on this important and straightforward use of the semicolon. In doing so, we discuss how transitional terms can (but do not have to) appear with semicolons.

In addition, we point out the lesser-used function that can be useful at times: using semicolons in complex or lengthy lists.

2. Colons: A colon has several functions, yet only one function confuses most people: using the colon to amplify an idea. (This function includes, but is not limited to, using a colon to introduce certain types of lists.) Following are examples:

To counteract the pain caused by hot peppers, the human brain releases certain chemicals: morphinelike endorphins.

My daughter prefers several peppers that are not hot at all: bell peppers, paprika, and pimientos.

According to many experts, only one thing helps get rid of the burning sensation of peppers: eating sour cream.

In this section, we discuss how to use the colon to create such structures. We give special attention to the common misconception that all lists are preceded by colons.

Semicolons

A semicolon (;) has two major functions in formal English. By far, the most common is to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence. An independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a complete sentence. When you combine two independent clauses into a single sentence, the result is a compound sentence such as the following:

Podunk is the real name of a city; it is near Worcester in Massachusetts.

What’s the Problem?

Although most correctly used semicolons involve compound sentences, some people misuse semicolons in surprisingly diverse ways. Some confuse semicolons with colons, while other people mistakenly use semicolons to set off phrases or even individual words. Once again, there are really only two ways to use a semicolon in formal writing, and one of these accounts for the vast majority of semicolons that are correctly used.

Avoiding the Problem: Semicolons and Periods

In general, use a semicolon only if you could replace it with a period to create two separate sentences. In other words, if you can use a period, you can use a semicolon.

The Major Use of Semicolons: Separating Independent Clauses

As already noted, the most common use of a semicolon is to separate what could be two separate sentences. Here are examples that properly use semicolons.

Keep in mind that this hint rests on your recognizing a sentence that is grammatically complete. You might think several of the second parts of the preceding sentences cannot stand alone because each needs the first part to make much sense or be clear. However, each part—the first and second part alike—can indeed stand on its own as a grammatically complete sentence having a subject and a verb. (See Chapter 6 for information on recognizing complete sentences.)

Shortly, we will note some ways to fine-tune our basic tip for using a semicolon. But if you follow this simple pattern, you should have few, if any, outright errors involving a semicolon:

Saving the Semicolon for Closely Related Ideas

You might wonder why most compound sentences do not use semicolons. Even though the major use of semicolons is to create a compound sentence, most people use semicolons sparingly, if at all. Actually, the most common way to create a compound sentence is to use a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (see Chapter 11).

Semicolons are used when the two parts of a compound sentence—the two independent clauses—are very closely related. That is, writers use this relatively rare approach when they want to emphasize the connections between what could be two separate sentences. That is why you do not often see semicolons. If they were more common, semicolons would be ordinary and thus lose the effect of showing a special relationship between two ideas.

Even though technically you can combine two independent clauses, most readers will expect that you do so only when the clauses are very closely related. You might, in fact, have encountered a teacher who marked a semicolon as “incorrect” even though you used it according to the pattern noted earlier. Most readers are not quite that picky. But whether the picky readers are right or wrong isn’t our point. The point is you can be technically correct in using the semicolon but still not make the best choice. Save your semicolons for emphasizing a close relationship between two clauses.

Semicolons and Transitional Terms

As a matter of fact, the relationship between the two parts of a compound sentence might be so strong that you might want to emphasize their connection in other ways. Many writers use not only a semicolon but a transitional term—a word or words that spell out the relationship between the two independent clauses. Some common transitional terms include however, thus, and therefore. (See the table a little later for a list of other transitional terms and the type of relationship for which they stand.)

Grammar Tip: Deleting or Moving a Transitional Term

A transitional term can always be deleted or moved elsewhere in a sentence. The result will be a completely grammatical sentence. If you cannot delete the term or move it around, the term is something other than a transitional term.

The pattern noted earlier, though perfectly correct, can be modified to include transitional terms:

The sentence is correct with or without the transitional term (sometimes called a conjunctive adverb). As the grammar tip explains, you can also move the transitional term around in the second part of the sentence (as in I have consequently seen it fourteen times). The term is simply making it clear that the second idea (seeing the movie fourteen times) is a result of the first (liking the movie). Following are more examples of semicolons correctly used with transitional terms (underlined):

This book states that I should not overuse semicolons; therefore, I will not use them often.

The town of Hershey, Pennsylvania, has long been associated with a famous candy maker; consequently, the streetlights there resemble Hershey’s Chocolate Kisses.

Some forms of vegetation provide more than one spice; for example, the nutmeg tree provides both nutmeg and mace.

Commas with Transitional Terms

As you can see, the general preference is that transitional terms used with a semicolon are followed by a comma. Some people, in fact, consider it a rule to use commas with transitional terms, especially when they begin an independent clause. In truth, transitional terms are much like introductory elements that begin sentences, because an independent clause could in fact be a separate sentence. (See Chapter 11 for more on using commas with introductory elements.)

The table that follows includes common transitional terms (conjunctive adverbs) and the type of relationship they help create between two ideas. Note that these terms can be used with or without semicolons, and some might have other functions depending on how they are used.

Types of Transitional Terms

The Less Common Function: Separating Complex Items

If all you remember about a semicolon is that it is used to separate what could be two sentences, you will encounter few problems with semicolons. In fact, it is the second use of semicolons that sometimes confuses people so much that they cannot correctly use a semicolon at all. Therefore, read this last part of the section only if you feel you have an excellent understanding of everything said up to this point.

The other major legitimate use of a semicolon involves both of the following:

1. A list or series (of words, phrases, or clauses) introduced by a colon

2. A complex list (because of the length of or punctuation found within the list)

Despite what some people assume, you should not use a semicolon to separate items in every list or series. (And for heaven’s sake, never use a semicolon to introduce such a list!) As explained later in this chapter, a colon is used to introduce some, but not all, lists. Normally, you should use a comma to separate the words within a list, as shown here:

We visited three states: Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi.

Use a semicolon only when the list is complex. The semicolon is a useful way to make it easier for readers to pick out the different items in a complex list. By complex, we mean one or both of the following:

• A list in which at least one of the items is very long (perhaps ten words or more, though your definition of long depends on what you are writing and for whom)

• A list in which at least one of the items has commas of its own, as with commas used to separate adjectives

Note how the following examples use semicolons to make it easier for readers to understand a list that would be confusing or intimidating otherwise. Notice also that, once you use even one semicolon in a list, you must separate all items with semicolons:

Remember these three rules: you must clock in by 8:00 A.M.; no smoking is allowed except in the areas designated in the courtyard and receiving dock; you must contact your supervisor three weeks in advance of taking any time off for vacation or personal business.

Gary has several hobbies: swimming; finding, fixing, and selling old computers; cooking; and collecting stamps made during wars.

How often do most people write sentences such as these? Not often. This use of the semicolon is rare but certainly can be useful when it is necessary to have complex lists.

With the growing use of word processing, more and more people are using bulleted lists or other formatting tools to avoid such difficult lists. The rules governing semicolons in bulleted or indented lists are not standardized for most professions, so you might encounter different perspectives on whether to use semicolons with specially formatted lists. In general, though, following the two guidelines just noted will work for all lists, specially formatted or not.

Summary

• Semicolons have only two major functions in formal American English.

• Undoubtedly, the most common function is to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence.

• Although not a requirement, many semicolons in a compound sentence are followed by a transitional term (such as nonetheless or therefore). Use a comma after the transitional term.

• A rarer use of the semicolon is to separate items in certain types of lists that start with a colon, but use semicolons in the list only if the list is complex and hard to read without the semicolons.

Colons

A colon (:) has several functions, and few cause problems in most people’s writing. Such functions include using the colon to

• Separate hours from minutes (10:30 A.M.)

• End a salutation in formal letters (Dear Dr. Houston:)

• Separate a title from a subtitle (“Star Trek: The Next Generation”)

• Begin a direct quotation (George stated: “The time to act is now.”) (Note: Commas also introduce quotations and actually are preferred by most readers, except in particularly formal writing.)

• Set off subheadings (Introduction:)

• Separate various types of information on a bibliography for a research paper (New York: Greensworth, 2004)

One function, however, is more complex and problematic. This section focuses on one major use of the colon: using colons to amplify an idea.

What’s the Problem?

The most complex use of the colon is to amplify (to elaborate or explain) a specific concept preceding the colon. Here is an application of this basic rule:

At the zoo, we saw something frightening: a cobra killing a mouse.

That might seem to be a simple sentence and an equally simple matter, but the problem with the general rule governing the example is threefold.

First, this rule is very general so that it can be applied in various types of sentences. The result of this generality, though, is that the rule is so vague it can be difficult to understand fully. In fact, learning this use of the colon usually involves intuition along with hit-and-miss practice and feedback from someone who can let the writer know when he or she is using the colon correctly.

Second, many people significantly misapply the aforementioned rule and create both major and minor errors. One of the most serious misapplications is this: some writers mistakenly use a colon to introduce any sort of list. Later, we’ll return to this major type of error.

Third, as a result of the vagueness of this rule and the errors associated with colons, many people simply avoid using the colon except for the most menial of grammatical tasks. Yet the colon, when used correctly, can help people write more clearly, concisely, and emphatically.

Avoiding the Problem: Is There a Complete Sentence?

Make sure that what comes before the colon could be a complete sentence. Use the colon to amplify a word appearing before the colon.

This is a more specific version of the general rule noted earlier. Our more specific tip will include almost every type of sentence that the general rule covers and will help you avoid the most common misuses of the colon. However, you must understand both parts of our tip. (Keep in mind that we are not discussing the minor uses of colons.)

Use the Colon After an Independent Clause

Let’s start with the easier part of our tip. Make sure that what comes before the colon could be a complete sentence, otherwise known as an independent clause. In other words, you must first see if a period could replace the colon. Is what comes before the period a complete sentence? If yes, your sentence passed the first test. Otherwise, do not use a colon.

When you apply our test, you should have something left after the period (or colon). This leftover could be a complete sentence or not. It does not matter as long as what comes before is a complete sentence, as seen here:

Our tip depends on your being able to recognize a complete sentence. (See Chapter 6 if you are not certain you can distinguish a complete sentence from a fragment.)

Amplifying a Previous Word

Now moving ahead in our tip, see if what comes after the colon is playing off a previous noun (or pronoun) in the independent clause. Because of the way the clause is worded, readers should have an expectation (a “pregnant pause,” as some people put it) that you will explain this noun. That is, readers expect you to amplify, explain, or elaborate on this one word. In the following, this “expectant word” is underlined; notice how what comes after the colon bends back to amplify this word:

The wording of each independent clause creates suspense. Curious readers will want to know something as a result: what “frightening sight” or which “two letters.” What comes after the colon fulfills the expectation created in the first part of the sentence. Think of it this way: if you left out the second part of the sentence, you would be a tease. That is, you set up readers to expect clarification of a particular idea, yet you did not deliver. If your sentence does not create this clear sense of expectation or suspense, you probably should not use a colon.

Although not a requirement, the noun or pronoun being amplified often appears toward the end of the independent clause—a position that helps create the expectation that this word will be explained further.

Here, then, is a pattern to assist you in creating this useful type of sentence:

independent clause (having an “expectant” noun or pronoun) + colon + amplification

As you can see in the previous examples, what comes after the colon can be a single word or a group of words. In fact, you might even follow the colon with an entire independent clause (a group of words that could conceivably be a separate sentence).

Grammar Tip: Capitalizing After Colons

If an independent clause does follow the colon, most grammar textbooks indicate you have the option of capitalizing or not capitalizing the first word after the colon. The most common approach is not capitalizing in such instances.

Colons and Lists

As noted already, one type of structure associated with the colon involves a list, usually a list of nouns. This type of sentence involves the same two elements previously discussed: (1) an independent clause and (2) amplification of a noun or pronoun in this clause. Here are three more examples (with each amplified noun underlined):

When you go to the store, remember to buy the following items: milk, bread, and wine.

Four states in the United States have active volcanoes: Alaska, California, Hawaii, and Washington.

The cartoon character Popeye has four nephews: Pipeye, Peepeye, Pupeye, and Poopeye.

Thus, using a colon to introduce a list is just a specific variation of the type of sentence we have discussed in this section. What comes before the colon creates suspense and expectation; what comes after delivers. If you left out the list, readers would be notably disappointed, peeved, or confused.

Grammar Tip: Separating Items in a List

When using a colon with a list, you normally separate each item in the list with a comma. There are rare occasions (see earlier in this chapter) when you would use semicolons to separate the items, but never use a semicolon to introduce a list.

Incorrectly Using Colons with Lists

Some people overgeneralize this notion of using colons to introduce a list. In other words, some writers use colons in front of any sort of list and forget that what comes before the colon must be a complete sentence. Here are two examples of this error:

X For my birthday, I want: another car, a more powerful computer, and a good book.

X Pam has several hobbies, such as: playing video games, working with clay, and writing poetry.

Why are these errors? In each, the colon is in the middle of an independent clause, not after it. You could not replace the colon with a period, as seen here:

X For my birthday, I want.

X Pam has several hobbies, such as.

In more technical terms, the original errors separated a direct object or the object of a preposition from the rest of the sentence. More simply put, each colon is incorrectly separating words that depend on one another grammatically. In these examples, first, the verb want must have the words that come afterward, and next, such as must be followed by its list. These two examples go beyond merely creating suspense, as with the correct examples. Instead, you are using words that depend on each other to create complete sentences.

To correct such errors, you usually just need to delete the colon:

For my birthday, I want another car, a more powerful computer, and a good book.

Pam has several hobbies, such as playing video games, working with clay, and writing poetry.

Alternatively, you could add a noun or pronoun before the colon so that what comes before the colon would be a complete sentence (added noun or pronoun underlined):

For my birthday, I want several items: another car, a more powerful computer, and a good book.

Pam has several hobbies, such as these: playing video games, working with clay, and writing poetry.

In the last example, the pronoun these does indeed create a complete sentence, even though the meaning does not seem complete.

Why You Should Not Neglect the Colon

Some of the problems associated with colons lead many people to take the easy approach: never using the colon except for relatively simple matters, such as in designating times. You would be able to get by without using colons in more sophisticated ways, but you would also miss out on two major benefits: emphasis and conciseness.

Because the colon is used to create a little suspense, readers normally pay attention to what comes after it. When used appropriately, this psychological trick can work to pull in a writer’s readers. As you might have noticed, we have used the colon in this book fairly often, not just to set off examples but to emphasize certain ideas.

The colon can also allow you to be more concise. If you do not use the colon, you would usually have to repeat words to avoid creating a fragment, as shown here:

Thus, don’t neglect the colon merely because it is not the easiest piece of punctuation to use.

Colons with Special Formatting

The increasing use of word processing is leading to more and more people using special features to set off lists or ideas. In particular, people are frequently indenting bulleted lists that might not need colons if the lists were integrated normally into a sentence. In fact, some people do not blink at all when a colon is used to set off any list that has been indented and bulleted.

The bottom line is that grammar purists want you to use the colon correctly, whether you are using an indented, bulleted list or not. But for better or worse, the rules we have discussed in this section were not developed for such special formatting.

There seems to be a trend toward relaxing the rules for lists that are indented and bulleted. In particular, some professional writers will use the colon even when it does not come at the end of an independent clause. We suggest you follow the safe approach (abiding by our tips and rules, summarized in the following) unless you know your readers prefer otherwise.

Summary

• Colons have several functions, such as ending salutations or separating hours from minutes when designating time.

• The function that most confuses people is using a colon to amplify or explain an idea.

• When using a colon correctly in this type of sentence, make sure that (1) what comes before the colon could be a complete sentence and (2) what comes afterward satisfies an expectation triggered by a noun or pronoun that comes before the colon.

• Do not use a colon to introduce every list. When using colons with lists, the sentence should meet both of the requirements just noted.