McGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage, 2nd Edition (2013)
Part II. How to Find and Correct Mistakes
Chapter 14. Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are the Rodney Dangerfield of punctuation. This piece of punctuation seems to get little respect.
Some people do not even think of quotation marks as punctuation at all, perhaps because in a sentence quotation marks seem to hang in the air rather than join commas and other punctuation on the line of a page. As we discuss in this chapter, one rule for quotation marks, while admittedly arbitrary, is frequently ignored by professional writers and editors. You might also note how quotation marks seem to be the only form of punctuation that a speaker might sometimes try to “draw” visually in the air (by using two fingers on each hand). But also notice how, when this happens, the speaker almost seems to be mocking the use of the quotation marks, as if using them is a bit of a joke.
In addition, quotation marks are used in highly unusual ways. Increasingly, it seems people are using them for no clear reason at all, though it might be that quotation marks are being confused with boldfacing or other ways of emphasizing words.
In this chapter, we describe two specific issues related to quotation marks, while noting a few other but less important issues as well.
1. Quotation marks with direct quotations and paraphrase: First, after touching on various functions of quotation marks, we focus on how writers can most effectively indicate that they are directly quoting someone else or just paraphrasing them. Quotation marks are used to indicate writers are quoting someone word for word (a direct quote). In contrast, a paraphrase means writers are changing somebody’s words while keeping the original ideas intact. A true paraphrase does not utilize quotation marks. These basics are simple, yet we explain the finer points of these rules so that writers can avoid certain errors and use quotation marks more effectively.
2. Quotation marks with other punctuation: Second, we describe one of the most common (though maybe least significant) errors in American English: misplacing periods and commas when they appear with quotation marks. Here is an example of this problem:
X The city of Magnesia is the source of the word “magnet”.
According to grammar and style guides meant to be used in various American professions and schools, a period or comma should always be placed inside the quotation marks. We discuss the problems of this rule and how it is not universally followed. This section also describes how to use quotation marks with other types of punctuation: colons, semicolons, question marks, and exclamation points.
Quotation Marks with Direct Quotations and Paraphrase
Quotation marks have assorted functions, including the following:
• To quote somebody else, using his or her exact wording. (Sharon said, “I quit!”)
• To indicate sarcasm, irony, or mockery. (Your painting is indeed “quaint.”)
• To indicate titles of short works, such as short stories. (Have you read “The Yellow Wallpaper”?)
• To use a word as a word. (I never use the word “whereas” unless forced to.) You can also use underlining or italicizing to achieve this purpose.
The first function listed—to directly quote someone—is the best-known function of quotation marks and the source of the name given this punctuation. Quotation marks were relatively slow to make their way into widespread acceptance. Hundreds of years ago, printers used several different ways to indicate words or sentences that were taken from another source. For instance, some printers used a unique typeset for quoted material, while others used various symbols (including pointing fingers) placed in the margins near the quoted material. Eventually, quotation marks became the standard practice.
Grammar Tip: Needless Quotation Marks
For some strange reason, people seem to be increasingly using quotation marks needlessly. In particular, some people mistakenly use them to emphasize a word or two, which is not a function of quotation marks. Use boldfacing, underlining, or italics—not quotation marks—if you want to emphasize certain words.
The term direct quotation means only one thing: using somebody else’s language, word for word. In contrast, paraphrase (also known as an indirect quotation) means you are putting somebody else’s ideas into your own words, keeping the original meaning the same inasmuch as possible.
What’s the Problem?
This section focuses on three relatively common issues involving quotation marks:
1. People do not always make it clear that they are quoting material directly because of the way they use the word that to introduce the quote.
2. To set off direct quotations you should follow certain conventions: using a comma (or colon) and capitalizing the first word of the quotation.
3. You have the option of something that seems to be both a direct and an indirect quotation, but you must be accurate in what you are claiming to be your own words.
Avoiding the Problem: Use That with Indirect Quotations
Avoid using the word that immediately in front of a direct quotation. On the other hand, it is perfectly normal to begin a paraphrase with that, though not a firm requirement.
The word that is frequently used to set off paraphrases, as shown here:
The secretary said that the photocopier is still broken.
Carl said that you should not worry so much about things beyond your control.
In speech, quotation marks are nonexistent (unless you use your fingers to form imaginary quotation marks in the air). Thus, people need other cues to know if something is a direct quotation or paraphrase. The word that is one such cue and indicates you are about to hear (or read) a paraphrase, as shown in the preceding examples.
It is conceivable that you might use that immediately before a direct quotation as well, but such instances are rare. Even when correct, placing that in front of a direct quotation can confuse people because of the mixed message. Thus, we suggest that you not use that in front of a direct quotation.
Avoiding the Problem:
Capitalize and Punctuate Direct Quotations
The first word in a direct quotation should be capitalized. Most direct quotations are set off with a comma or colon (a colon is considered the more formal option).
No matter where the direct quotation appears in a sentence, the first word of the quote should be capitalized, as long as there is no paraphrasing at all.
Davy Crockett once said: “My love was so hot as mighty night to burst my boilers.”
According to Otto Kerner, “Our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal.”
Notice also how these quotations are set off by a comma or colon. This punctuation is required no matter where the quotation appears. Most writers prefer to introduce a direct quotation with a tag (the part that identifies the source of the quotation). However, you can place the tag after the direct quotation. In this next example, a comma (not a colon) must be used to set off the direct quotation from the tag (underlined) that appears at the end of the sentence:
“Every murderer is probably somebody’s old friend,” as writer Agatha Christie once wrote.
If you are writing an extensive dialogue, you do not have to use a tag each time somebody speaks. The convention, though, is to begin a new paragraph each time a different person is speaking.
Avoiding the Problem: Use Quotation Marks as Needed
In a paraphrase that also includes some parts of the original quotation, make it clear which parts are direct and which are paraphrased. Err on the side of caution when deciding whether to use quotation marks around “some parts” of the language in question.
Sometimes you want to use certain words exactly as somebody else used them, but you also want to change other words (perhaps to be clearer or more concise). This is a perfectly legitimate option, allowing you to create something that is part direct quotation and part paraphrase. Here are two examples:
The floor manager said that we should be “judicious when having close relationships” with other employees.
According to one expert, the nation should expect “medium to light” unemployment during the next fiscal year.
This sort of hybrid is primarily a paraphrase but with some features of a direct quotation. You must still use quotation marks around those parts of the sentence that are distinctly related to the source. You would not capitalize the words that are being directly quoted, unless they are a proper noun that always should be capitalized (see Chapter 15).
The problem is that, when paraphrasing, people commonly use at least a couple of words that are also in the original. Does this mean every little word (such as the) needs to be set off with quotation marks? Obviously not. However, there are times when using even one word from the original requires quotation marks. The general rule is this: use quotation marks around any words that would jump out at readers as being taken directly from this particular person, if readers had access to the original source. If the original source used a word or phrase that you usually do not use or would not normally use to describe the basic topic being covered, even that one word or phrase should be put in quotation marks, as shown in this example:
The company president described our progress as “awe-inspiring.”
You can also set off words or phrases in a paraphrase to make it clear you really do not want to be identified with a particular word choice, as here:
Ralph said that you seemed a bit “plump.”
If in doubt about whether to use quotation marks for certain parts, err on the safe side by using quotation marks. People might think you are plagiarizing or being dishonest if you fail to change words sufficiently in what you claim to be your own words.
Contrary to popular myth, there is no rule on how many words must be changed in order to create a paraphrase—a source of frustration for writers, especially students writing research papers. If you are not sure if the words require quotation marks or not, use quotation marks around the parts that appear in the original sources. Few readers will be bothered when you err on the side of caution, unless you go too far and use quotation marks excessively around trivial words.
Grammar Tip: Block Quotations
If you have a lengthy direct quotation (for example, three lines), you can use a block quotation: set off the entire quotation by indenting it, without using quotation marks. The specifics of block quotations vary, but usually you set off the block quote by ten spaces, on the left side only.
Summary
• Direct quotations capture somebody else’s words exactly.
• A paraphrase (or an indirect quotation) makes significant changes in the original material, putting the ideas into different words.
• Avoid using the word that immediately before a direct quotation. A paraphrase, though, frequently begins with that.
• The first word of a direct quotation should be capitalized, no matter where the quotation is placed in a sentence.
• Most direct quotations are set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or colon.
• You can use some parts of the original material in a paraphrase, but use quotation marks around words or phrases clearly taken from the original.
Quotation Marks with Other Punctuation
One of the most common questions asked about quotation marks arises when the second set of quotation marks is right next to a period, a comma, or another piece of punctuation. For instance, is this sentence correct or not?
Rob said, “You have to leave now.”
What’s the Problem?
Does the period, comma, colon, etc., go inside or outside the quotation marks? With periods and commas, the answer rests with one of the most arbitrary rules ever devised for punctuation. With other pieces of punctuation, the rules are more logical, though not always as easy to apply.
In the following, we provide three rules, each based on the type of punctuation in question (periods and commas, semicolons and colons, and exclamation points and question marks).
Avoiding the Problem: Periods and Commas
Periods and commas should always go inside the quotation marks.
Quotation Marks with Periods and Commas
The common rule is very simple: a period and comma go inside the quotation marks—no matter why the quotation marks appear. Thus, this earlier example is correct:
Rob said, “You have to leave now.”
Also correct are these sentences, which use quotation marks in various ways:
General George Patton once said, “Wars may be fought with weapons, but they are won by men.”
I know you hate the word “got,” but it is accepted in formal English.
While studying, Shari listened to a tune entitled “Morning Song.”
My husband’s mother is coming for a “short visit,” so maybe I will leave town for a few days.
The rule is simple but problematic. For one thing, this is the American rule. The British rule, which much of the English-speaking world abides by, is completely the opposite. In the British system, the period and comma go outside the quotation marks. Because most Americans read materials that adhere to British rules, we receive mixed messages about where to place the comma or period. In addition, even in the United States, it is common for publishers to place the comma and period outside the quotation marks. Indeed, this seems to be the standard practice with many newspapers and popular magazines.
Nonetheless, you should follow the rule of placing commas or periods inside quotation marks unless you are writing in an occupation or organization that has adopted a different set of rules. Again, this rule should be applied to any use of quotation marks, not just to quotation marks used for direct quotes.
This first rule covers the great majority of situations when quotation marks appear right next to another type of punctuation. The next two rules cover less frequent—but often confusing—situations.
Avoiding the Problem: Semicolons and Colons
Semicolons and colons should always go outside the quotation marks.
Quotation Marks with Semicolons and Colons
This rule is also simple: colons and semicolons always go outside the quotation marks, no matter why the quotation marks appear, as shown in the following:
Joseph Stalin supposedly said, “You cannot make a revolution with silk gloves”; even if he did not actually say this, he would have agreed.
I know one place where you can find the poem “The New Colossus”: on the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.
Here is the meaning of the word “zoonosis”: it is a type of animal disease communicable to humans.
Fortunately, the American and British systems (and most people’s intuition) agree this time: the colons and semicolons belong outside the quotation marks, if for no other reason than that they just look odd placed inside the quotation marks.
In fact, the only reason people might be confused about the matter is that most of us rarely face the question of where to put the colon or semicolon. As we noted in Chapter 13, colons and semicolons are not common pieces of punctuation, and it is even rarer for them to appear right next to quotation marks.
Quotation Marks with Question Marks and Exclamation Points
The third rule is also standard to both the American and British systems, but the problem now is that the decision depends on the wording of each specific sentence in question.
However, you can punctuate correctly if you just think about the matter logically. If the material inside the quotation marks is a question, then shouldn’t the question mark go with this material rather than being placed outside the quotation marks? The sensible answer is yes, the question mark should be placed with the question. (The same is true for an exclamatory sentence: an exclamation point should be placed with it, inside the quotation marks.)
In the following examples, the words inside the quotation marks are either questions or exclamations. Thus, the punctuation is placed inside the quotation marks.
Becky asked, “Can we leave yet?”
The poem begins with “To whom can I speak today?”
The officer yelled, “Halt!”
Avoiding the Problem: Question Marks and Exclamation Points
Question marks and exclamation points go inside the quotation marks if the material inside is a question or an exclamation. Otherwise, they go outside.
In these next examples, though, the entire sentence is a question or an exclamation. Accordingly, the punctuation is placed outside the quotation marks in order to show that the punctuation is covering the entire sentence.
Do you know the meaning of the word “triolet”?
What famous composer said, “I want to seize fate by the throat”?
In rare situations, both the sentence and the language inside the quotation marks are questions or exclamations. Do not use two sets of punctuation. Instead, just follow the third rule and place the question mark or exclamation point inside the quotation marks.
Who asked, “Are we almost there yet?”
When did she write the story “Can You See Me Now?”
Grammar Tip: Ignore Everything Outside the Quotation Marks
When using quotation marks with question marks or exclamation points, it might help to strip away everything except the quoted material. In other words, ignore everything else and decide if the quoted material would, by itself, need a question mark or an exclamation point. If so, put the question mark or exclamation point inside the quotation marks.
Summary
• While this rule is not universally accepted, periods and commas go inside the quotation marks.
• Semicolons and colons always go outside the quotation marks.
• If the language inside the quotation marks is a question or an exclamation, then the question mark or exclamation point goes inside the quotation marks. Otherwise, put the punctuation outside the quotation marks.