Modern Italian Grammar: A Practical Guide, Third Edition (2013)

Part A. Structures

5. Conjunctions

5.1 What is a conjunction?

The role of conjunctions (‘joining words’) is to link two or more sentences or parts of a sentence, whether clauses, phrases or simply groups of words. The conjunctions, together with other elements such as prepositions, pronouns and discourse markers, help to connect the thread of logic that runs through any discourse or text. The links formed by conjunctions can be of two different types: coordinating or subordinating.

5.2 Coordinating conjunctions

Two clauses, or groups of words, are called coordinated when they have the same syntactical status, for example:

•When they are both subjects of the same verb:

Luciano e Gianni sono italiani.

Luciano and Gianni are Italian.

•Or when they are clauses of equal weight or value:

Il cane dorme e il gatto mangia.

The dog is sleeping and the cat is eating.

The different types of coordinating conjunctions fulfil different functions, depending on the relationship between the two clauses or parts of the sentence (see also 30.2).

5.2.1 Simple coordinating conjunctions

E ‘and’ is the most common of the coordinating conjunctions. When followed by a word beginning with a vowel, it may change into ed to aid pronunciation (tu ed io). Other simple coordinating conjunctions are:

Flavia parla italiano e spagnolo.

Flavia speaks Italian and Spanish.

Flavia parla italiano ed anche spagnolo.

Flavia speaks Italian and also Spanish.

Marina si iscriverà all'università di Siena oppure al Politecnico di Torino.

Marina will enrol at Siena University or else at the Politecnico in Turin.

5.2.2 Double conjunctions

Sometimes two or more conjunctions link two or more corresponding elements of a clause or sentence:

(Sia … sia is often substituted by the pair sia … che.)

Napoli è una città interessante non solo dal punto di vista archeologico, ma anche dal punto di vista culturale.

Naples is an interesting city, not only from an archaeological point of view, but also from a cultural one.

5.2.3 Explanatory conjunctions

These conjunctions connect one clause, phrase or sentence with a second one which explains the meaning of the first more fully:

Cioè can also be used to correct a previous statement, particularly in spoken language:

Vado io a prendere il pane, cioè no, vai tu, perché sai dove andare.

I'll go and get the bread, no, you go, because you know where to go.

▶ See also 30.2.5 (cioè as discourse marker in written language) and 41.4.5 (cioè as discourse marker in spoken language).

5.2.4 Contrasting conjunctions

These introduce a clause or sentence, whose content is in contrast with the preceding one (see also 30.2.4):

For a different meaning of piuttosto (adverb), see 6.3.5.

5.2.5 Conjunctions of sequence or consequence

These introduce a clause or sentence whose content follows naturally from, or is a consequence of, the preceding one (see also 35.2):

Each of the conjunctions shown above links a sequence of sentences or clauses that are connected, but still independent of each other, and which could just as well stand alone. These are called coordinated sentences.

5.3 Subordinating conjunctions

A sentence is subordinate to another one when it has the function of completing it. This relationship of dependence, with a main clause or sentence and one or more dependent clauses or sentences, is much more common in Italian than in English. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone, but exist only in relation to the main clause. Certain specific conjunctions are used to indicate this relationship. Their role is similar to that of prepositions (see 4.1) but with two key differences:

•The dependent verb introduced by a preposition (or following the verb directly) is always an infinitive and its subject must be the same as that of the main verb:

Spero di vincere.

I hope to win.

Preferisco andare a casa.

I'd prefer to go home.

•The dependent verb introduced by a subordinating conjunction, on the other hand, can be in the indicative, conditional or subjunctive mood (see 2.2.2, 2.2.11 and 2.2.14–15), and its subject may be a different one from that of the main verb:

Indicative:

So che loro hanno vinto.

I know they have won.

Conditional:

Capisco che voi vorreste vincere.

I understand that you would like to win.

Subjunctive:

Spero che la nostra squadra vinca.

I hope our team wins.

The mood and tense of the dependent verbs, introduced by the conjunction che, or by other conjunctions, depend on the nature of the main verb (so, capisco, spero) and on the time relationship between the two verbs.

Some of the most common subordinating conjunctions are shown here, with a few examples.

5.3.1 Che

Che ‘that’ is the most frequently used of all subordinating conjunctions. This function of che differs from its function as a relative pronoun (see 3.5).

The different kinds of clauses introduced by che can be identified by their relationship with the main verb on which they depend. Here are just a few examples showing the different functions that dependent clause introduced by checan have.

As object of a verb (see also 31.3):

Ho detto che sono stanco.

I said that I am tired.

As subject of a verb (see also 32.4):

È probabile che l'albergo sia pieno.

It's likely that the hotel is full.

Expressing purpose (see also 33.3.2):

Chiamo un meccanico che ci ripari la macchina.

I'll call a mechanic who can repair the car.

Expressing a consequence (see also 35.4):

Sono così stanco che andrei a letto subito.

I'm so tired that I'd go to bed immediately.

Expressing a comparison (see also 17.3.4):

È più facile dirlo che farlo.

It's easier to say it than to do it.

5.3.2 Se

Se can mean ‘if’ or ‘whether’. Here are the two main uses of se:

(a)Introducing an indirect question (see also 29.2, 31.3.2, 38.8.2):

Dimmi se capisci.

Tell me whether you understand or not.

(b)Introducing a condition in a conditional sentence, followed by either indicative or subjunctive, depending on the degree of probability (see also 38.2, 38.3):

Se piove non esco.

If it rains I won't go out.

Se is followed by the subjunctive when the event is unlikely to take place (see also 38.2, 38.3):

Se avessi i soldi farei un viaggio negli USA.

If I had the money I'd go on a trip to the USA.

Conditional clauses are illustrated in more detail in Chapter 38.

For an idiomatic use of se, see also 26.4.6 (chissà se).

5.3.3 Perché

Perché can mean ‘because’, ‘why’ or ‘in order to’. There are three main types of clauses introduced by perché. Two of these have a verb in the indicative, while the third (purpose) requires a verb in the subjunctive. Here are examples of all three types of clause.

Expressing reason (see also 5.3.4 and 34.3.1):

Mio figlio piange perché ha fame.

My son is crying because he is hungry.

Introducing an indirect question (see also 31.1.2 and 31.3):

Dimmi perché vuoi andare via.

Tell me why you want to go away.

Expressing purpose (see also 5.3.5):

Ti parlo chiaro perché tu possa capirmi.

I am speaking to you clearly so that you can understand me.

5.3.4 Conjunctions introducing cause or reason clauses

Apart from perché, several other conjunctions and phrases introduce a clause of cause or reason and are also followed by the indicative. These include:

▶ See also 34.3.1.

5.3.5 Conjunctions introducing a purpose clause

Apart from perché, other conjunctions introducing a purpose clause include:

▶ See also 33.3.1.

5.3.6 Conjunctions introducing a time clause: quando, mentre, appena

The three conjunctions most commonly used to introduce a time clause in the indicative (see also 36.2, 36.4) are:

Quando can also be used to introduce an indirect question (see also 31.1.2 and 31.3):

Non so quando mi pagheranno.

I don't know when they'll pay me.

Similar to conjunctions, phrases expressing frequency (ogni volta che ‘every time that’, tutte le volte che ‘all the times that’) can also be used to introduce a time clause (see 3.9.2–3).

Some conjunctions introducing a time clause require the subjunctive, generally when the action or event has still to take place:

▶ See also 36.3.2 (prima che), 36.4.2 (finché).

5.3.7 Conjunctions introducing a result clause

When introducing a result clause, the following conjunctions use the indicative:

They are also written cosicché and dimodoché. They are always separated from the main clause by a comma.

Ho comprato cinque paia di scarpe, cosicché non avevo i soldi per comprare il vestito.

I bought five pairs of shoes, so that I didn't have any money to buy the dress.

▶ See also 35.3.

For in modo che expressing purpose, see 5.3.5 above.

5.3.8 Conjunctions introducing a concessive clause

When introducing a concessive clause, the following conjunctions use the subjunctive, although anche se can be followed either by the indicative or by the subjunctive, depending on how likely the event is (see also 39.3.2):

▶ See also 39.3.2.

5.3.9 Conjunctions introducing a restrictive or exception clause

5.3.10 Conjunctions introducing a clause expressing manner

Come se is normally followed by the subjunctive:

▶ See also 37.4.7.