Punctuation and Mechanics - POLISHING YOUR ESSAY - Essential Writing Skills for College and Beyond

Essential Writing Skills for College and Beyond (2014)

Part III. POLISHING YOUR ESSAY

Chapter 9. Punctuation and Mechanics

Punctuation? Who cares?!

If you have ever asked this question, you are not alone. However, you should absolutely care about learning to use punctuation properly. Why? Punctuation helps you to communicate your ideas clearly and to ensure readers understand exactly what you mean to convey.

Correct, effective punctuation usage will increase the scores you earn on virtually all the writing assignments you turn in, regardless of the discipline.

It helps to understand why we invented and use these marks we call “punctuation.” Punctuation is a human invention designed for a specific purpose: meaning.

Punctuation allows writers to convey specific meanings. Just as we use voice tone and inflection in speech to convey emotions, imply sarcasm, or emphasize a point, so, too, do writers use punctuation to ensure their readers understand precisely what they mean.

For example, consider the striking difference between the following two sentences, which inspired a best-selling book on punctuation:

The panda bear eats, shoots, and leaves.

The panda bear eats shoots and leaves.

Do the sentences express the same meaning? They contain the exact same language and phrasing. Yet, they convey starkly different meanings. Which do you think the author meant to convey?

The mere addition of two tiny marks, the commas, dramatically changes the first sentence’s meaning. The placement of commas marks the words “eats, shoots, and leaves” as a list of verbs, and thus the subject (the panda bear) is the agent who performs these actions. The sentence conveys the thought that the panda bear consumes food, fires a gun, and then departs the scene. The removal of the commas (as in the second sentence) fixes the problem and conveys the meaning that the writer most likely intended: The panda bear eats some plants, specifically “shoots and leaves.” Clearly, punctuation can play an important role in constructing meaning. (If you find this discussion of punctuation interesting, check out Lynne Trusse’s book Eats, Shoots & Leaves.)

Almost all communication in the digital age is written. Composing e-mails, texts, presentations, résumés, and memos requires knowledge of how to write well. Even socially, we are increasingly relying on writing to communicate: in e-mail, social networks, blogs, and web pages.

How well you present yourself in writing may dictate not only what grades you earn, but what jobs, contracts, and promotions you land.

Knowing how to use punctuation means arming yourself to write anything for anyone at any time. Punctuation rules do not change; once you know them, you know them. A writer who does not know them, though, is much like a mechanic who cannot use a socket wrench or a painter who can paint with only a few types of brushes.

The good news is that learning the rules of punctuation is not difficult or painful and investing time in mastering the rules pays large dividends.

The benefits of learning punctuation rules include the following:

· HIGHER SCORES. Obviously a working knowledge of these rules will earn you higher scores. Instructors cannot and will not assign a high score to an essay that repeatedly misuses or omits punctuation marks.

· INCREASED CONFIDENCE AND FREE TIME. The fewer rules you have to look up and worry that you are misusing, the more time and energy you can devote to actually writing. Once you know the major punctuation rules, you can focus on conveying what you know instead of trying to figure out if that comma should or should not go here or there.

· MORE SOPHISTICATED, POLISHED, AND IMPRESSIVE WORK. Strong knowledge of punctuation can also help you vary your sentence structure, which means you will have the ability to create impressive, sophisticated sentences without fear of improperly punctuating them. This knowledge comes in handy anytime you need or want to write—whether for a class, a job, or a promotion.

Study the rules of punctuation outlined on the following pages, and practice until you master them. Feel free to skip around and learn whichever rules you feel most comfortable with first.

THE COMMA (,)

The comma is a mark of separation and pause. Use it to separate items (ideas, nouns, adjectives, verbs) in a sentence or to cause your reader to pause. Study the seven rules below to learn how to use the comma effectively, and remember this rule: Only insert a comma into a sentence when you can cite a rule to justify its inclusion-no rule, no comma.

RULE 1: Use a comma to separate three or more words, clauses, or phrases written in a series. Place a comma after each item except the last.1

INCORRECT: The painting brilliantly used color composition and technique to inspire.

CORRECT: The painting brilliantly used color, composition, and technique to inspire.

POSSIBLY INCORRECT: The painting brilliantly used color, composition and technique to inspire. (Remember, scholars within different disciplines disagree on whether we must use a comma before the final item, so check with your professor.)

Since this rule is so widely known, many people often forget its importance, but it is easily remembered by the earlier referenced example from Eats, Shoots & Leaves. Remember, this rule applies not only to noun series, but also to verbs, adjectives, and even clauses if presented in a series of three or more.

CORRECT: She twists, turns, and jumps all over the mat.

CORRECT: The dilapidated, rusting, ancient home remains for sale.

CORRECT: She decided to move away from home, join the Peace Corps, and volunteer in Guam.

RULE 2: Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives work together to describe or modify a noun; coordinate adjectives are not connected by and.

INCORRECT: Faulkner is a brilliant beautiful writer.

INCORRECT: Faulkner is a brilliant, and beautiful writer.

CORRECT: Faulkner is a brilliant, beautiful writer.

Do not use a comma to separate noncoordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives separately modify the noun.

EXAMPLE: The frayed, bulky sweater was surprisingly expensive.

Both frayed and bulky each describe the sweater. They do not build on each other or rely on each other for their meaning, but they do work together to create a picture for us of the sweater. We know it is both frayed and bulky.

Noncoordinate adjectives do not separately modify the noun. Instead, they build on each other. The first adjective modifies the second adjective, which then modifies the noun.

EXAMPLE: She wrote her book about her childhood home, a yellow frame house.

Yellow describes the color of the frame, not necessarily the house, so we would not want to separate yellow from frame with a comma.

INCORRECT: The bright, red car glistened in the sun.

CORRECT: The bright red car glistened in the sun.

The word bright modifies red, not car (What kind of red was the car? It was bright red. It was not the car that was bright but the red paint), so we do not need to separate the adjectives with a comma because they are noncoordinate adjectives.

RULE 3: Use a comma to set off appositives. Appositives are nonessential information in a sentence; in other words, an appositive gives readers additional information that is not crucial to the sentence’s meaning. An appositive is like an aside, something said in passing, or bonus information.

INCORRECT: My professor, Dr. Cohen is a brilliant scholar and grammarian.

CORRECT: My professor, Dr. Cohen, is a brilliant scholar and grammarian.

In the second sentence, the writer has correctly marked the professor’s name, Dr. Cohen, as an appositive. By setting it off with commas, the writer tells us this information is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. The sentence would still make sense and retain its essential meaning: “My professor is a brilliant scholar and grammarian.” We may not know the professor’s name, but we would still understand the core meaning.

INCORRECT: The chief of police an expert in police procedure wrote an interesting, insightful book on life as an officer of the law.

CORRECT: The chief of police, an expert in police procedure, wrote an interesting, insightful book on life as an officer of the law.

The appositive information, “an expert in police procedure,” must be set off by commas because it is additional information and leaving it in creates a run-on sentence, which is confusing to understand.

INCORRECT: Students, who cheat, will fail.

CORRECT: Students who cheat will fail.

In this case, the writer should not mark “who cheat” as an appositive. This information is crucial to the meaning of the sentence. If we remove it, we drastically alter the sentence’s message: “Students will fail” conveys an entirely different meaning than “Students who cheat will fail.” The writer should remove the commas to fix this error so that the sentence reads: “Students who cheat will fail.”

RULE 4: Place a comma after introductory clauses and phrases four words or longer or after one-word introductions. Introductory words, phrases, and clauses work to set the stage for the main idea or action of the sentence. They offer readers introductory information but do not contain the subject or verb of the sentence.

SAMPLE INTRODUCTORY WORDS AND PHRASES

· However,

· On the other hand,

· Also,

· When I was a kid,

· Thus,

· Once upon a time,

· Otherwise,

· In spite of recent evidence,

· Rather,

· For example,

· Yet,

· Indeed,

· Because of his desire to win,

· Hence,

· After a long-winded debate,

INCORRECT: The ruling was unexpected. However it was fair.

CORRECT: The ruling was unexpected. However, it was fair.

INCORRECT: When I was a child in Africa I spent most of my time searching for food and shelter.

CORRECT: When I was a child in Africa, I spent most of my time searching for food and shelter.

INCORRECT: Learning the business, was one of the most difficult things he ever attempted.

CORRECT: Learning the business was one of the most difficult things he ever attempted.

In Example 3, the writer should not place a comma after business because “learning the business” works as the sentence’s subject, not as an introduction to the main action of the sentence.

RULE 5: Place a comma after each of the following: the names of cities, states, dates, and years.

INCORRECT: Valentine’s Day is February 14 2014 a Friday.

CORRECT: Valentine’s Day is February 14, 2014, a Friday.

INCORRECT: San Antonio Texas is the hometown of writer Sandra Cisneros.

CORRECT: San Antonio, Texas, is the hometown of writer Sandra Cisneros.

RULE 6: Use a comma to join two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. Be sure you have two independent clauses, not one independent clause and one dependent clause. An independent clause is a clause (a group of words) that can stand alone, meaning it does not need any other portion of the sentence to make sense. It has a subject and a verb, and it presents a complete thought. A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone. A coordinating conjunction connects ideas. Remember them by using the acronym FANBOYS:

For

And

Nor

But

Or

Yet

So

Ensure that you include a FANBOY when you connect two independent clauses with a comma. Otherwise, the sentence will not be punctuated correctly.

INCORRECT: I want to go to Europe this summer with my friends but I don’t have the money.

CORRECT: I want to go to Europe this summer with my friends, but I don’t have the money.

The first clause, “I want to go to Europe this summer,” is independent; it has a subject (I) and a verb (want). It also presents a complete thought. We could place a period after summer because this clause is strong enough to form its own sentence. The second clause, “I don’t have the money,” is also an independent clause. These two independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (but), and thus we place a comma before the conjunction to adhere to the rule.

INCORRECT: Thomas went to the store, and bought two loaves of bread.

CORRECT: Thomas went to the store and bought two loaves of bread.

CORRECT: Thomas went to the store, and he bought two loaves of bread.

The first clause, “Thomas went to the store,” is independent, but what about the second clause (“bought two loaves of bread”)? Remember, an independent clause must be able to stand alone—it must have its own subject and verb and express a complete thought. Is “bought two loaves of bread” a complete thought? Who bought these items? We must look to the other clause (“Thomas went to the store”) to find out it was Thomas, which means the clause “bought two loaves of bread” is dependent on the first clause for its meaning. Thus, this sentence does not adhere to the rule, and we should either delete the comma or add a subject, such as he.

INCORRECT: She is the best friend I’ve ever had, I love her.

The writer has incorrectly punctuated this sentence because it contains two independent clauses joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOY). The writer can fix this sentence with either of these strategies:

1. Adding a FANBOY after the comma

CORRECT: She is the best friend I’ve ever had, and I love her.

1. Changing the comma to a semicolon

CORRECT: She is the best friend I’ve ever had; I love her.

RULE 7: Use the comma to introduce a quotation following a dependent clause (use the colon to set up a quotation following an independent clause).

INCORRECT: According to Thoreau “The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation” (50).

INCORRECT: According to Thoreau: “The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation” (50).

CORRECT: According to Thoreau, “The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation” (50).

Do not use the comma to introduce the quote if you incorporate the quote into the flow of your own phrasing.

INCORRECT: According to Thoreau, most people, “lead lives of quiet desperation” (50).

CORRECT: According to Thoreau, most people “lead lives of quiet desperation” (50).

THE SEMICOLON (;)

The semicolon, like the comma, is among the most misused punctuation marks in the English language. Study the two semicolon placement rules to create longer, more sophisticated sentences; the semicolon can also help you connect ideas within a single sentence and thus vary your sentence structure.

RULE 1: Use the semicolon to join two independent clauses. As mentioned in the section on commas, an independent clause is a clause that can stand alone. It could form its own sentence (it has both a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought).

INCORRECT: I have learned a great deal in my writing class, now I know I am a strong writer.

CORRECT: I have learned a great deal in my writing class; now I know I am a strong writer.

CORRECT: I have learned a great deal in my writing class. Now I know I am a strong writer.

The first sentence of the above example is incorrect because there is not a coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS) to connect the two independent clauses. The writer needs to either (1) add a coordinating conjunction or (2) change the comma to a semicolon. The second sentence in the example is correctly punctuated because it joins two independent clauses; each clause contains a subject and a verb and could stand on its own as a full sentence.

You may wonder why the writer would choose a semicolon rather than, say, a period. Consider the difference, as presented in the third sentence. The writer has correctly punctuated both sentences. Whether the writer chooses to use a semicolon or a period is simply a matter of stylistic choice. The writer uses the period to create two distinct sentences to stress the ideas in both by placing them within their own sentences. However, be sure this emphasis is warranted. Writing an essay that includes all simple sentences (meaning no complex, sophisticated sentences) will make for stilted, choppy writing.

RULE 2: Use the semicolon to separate items in a series in which the items themselves contain commas.

INCORRECT: We expect the following people to attend today’s luncheon: Nancy Wilson, Writing Center Director, Nadine Cooper, Director of Undergraduate Studies, and Susan Beebe, Dean of Student Services.

CORRECT: We expect the following people to attend today’s luncheon: Nancy Wilson, Writing Center Director; Nadine Cooper, Director of Undergraduate Studies; and Susan Beebe, Dean of Student Services.

In the first list, the names and titles of the attendees are indistinguishable. Who is the Writing Center Director? Is it Nancy Wilson or Nadine Cooper? Perhaps the director is yet another person who remains unnamed? By listing these names and titles with commas, the writer unfortunately makes the information unnecessarily confusing. By replacing the commas after the titles, the writer can easily distinguish which title belongs with which person.

You probably noticed that one of the semicolon rules is very similar to the comma rule, and in fact students usually interpose the two marks. To avoid this problem, download the exercise at www.writersdigest.com/essential-college-writing.

THE COLON (:)

Many students shy away from using the colon; they know it’s a punctuation mark, but they are uncertain of its rules and have trouble distinguishing it from the semicolon. The colon, however, is an important punctuation mark and a powerful tool for conveying meaning. It looks like two periods stacked on top of each other, whereas a semicolon is a period on top of a comma.

The two punctuation marks have different rules for their usage, but fear not; these rules are easy to learn, and they’re worth the effort. The colon is especially handy for two purposes: (1) introducing lists and (2) leading a reader to a conclusion or point you wish to highlight.

RULE 1: Use the colon to introduce a list; be sure the clause preceding the colon is independent. (Look to the left of the colon; the clause to the left of the colon must be independent.)

INCORRECT: Friends to invite: Jonathan, Patricia, Chris, Julie, Tanya, Karmen, Lynda, Nicole, Paul, and Tiffani.

CORRECT: She has many friends to invite: Jonathan, Patricia, Chris, Julie, Tanya, Karmen, Lynda, Nicole, Paul, and Tiffani.

RULE 2: Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce and highlight a quotation.

INCORRECT: Emerson: “To be yourself in a world that is constantly trying to make you something else is the greatest accomplishment.”

CORRECT: Emerson’s view on identity is perhaps the most succinct of the three writers: “To be yourself in a world that is constantly trying to make you something else is the greatest accomplishment.”

RULE 3: Use a colon in complex sentences to lead readers to a conclusion or to highlight a point—be sure the clause to the left of the colon is independent.

INCORRECT: Colbert’s character: He is a satirical spoof meant to expose and criticize societal cruelty and injustice.

CORRECT: Viewers appalled by the supposed cruelty of TV’s Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report miss the overall point: The character Colbert plays is a satirical spoof meant to expose and criticize societal cruelty and injustice.

RULE 4: Place a colon after the salutation of a professional or business letter.

INCORRECT: Dear Professor Smith,

CORRECT: Dear Professor Smith:

Most instructors agree that using a comma for a personal letter or e-mail is acceptable; however, when writing business letters and other professional correspondences, place a colon after the salutation.

RULE 5: Use a colon to separate hours and minutes in expressions of time.

INCORRECT: She set the appointment for 1130 a.m.

CORRECT: She set the appointment for 11:30 a.m.

ITALICS

Rule 1: Use italics to stress words or phrases. Use this strategy sparingly, as overusing it will nullify its effect and in many cases will confuse readers.

INCORRECT: Viewers must note that it is Mildred who takes the blame for the murder, not Bert.

CORRECT: Viewers must note that it is Mildred who takes the blame for the murder, not Bert.

RULE 2: Italicize (do not underline) the titles of larger works, such as books, films, epic poems, reference works, journals, magazines, newspapers, websites, and television shows.2

INCORRECT: The television program Family Guy reveals a great deal about competing notions of masculinity within American culture.

CORRECT: The television program Family Guy reveals a great deal about competing notions of masculinity within American culture.

INCORRECT: Growing up, I read Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” religiously.

CORRECT: Growing up, I read Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn religiously.

RULE 3: Use italics to introduce terms or words from another language.

INCORRECT: The term fiancé has French origins.

CORRECT: The term fiancé has French origins.

DASHES, HYPHENS, AND PARENTHESES

THE DASH (—)

Use the dash to emphasize key phrases and information and to highlight important elements of your paper for readers. (You can type a dash into your document by hitting the hyphen key twice.)

RULE: Always use dashes in pairs, unless the information you wish to highlight appears at the end of the sentence.

INCORRECT: Presumed—not confirmed dead, Elvis Presley is my favorite artist of all time.

CORRECT: Presumed—not confirmed—dead, Elvis Presley is my favorite artist of all time.

The writer should enclose the words “not confirmed” within the dashes to highlight their importance. Otherwise, the sentence loses its flow and clarity—and it would be punctuated incorrectly. Dashes work like arrows to point to the importance of certain information within a sentence, thereby indicating stress. In fact, the dash is the highest form of stress a writer can use with punctuation (parentheses are second highest, and commas are the lowest).

INCORRECT: William Faulkner’s work and life are fascinating—and he is among the most important writers—of the twentieth century.

CORRECT: William Faulkner’s work and life are fascinating—and he is among the most important writers of the twentieth century.

In this example, the writer need not include another dash in the sentence; all the words following the dash work to express what information the writer wishes to highlight—that he believes Faulkner to be among the most important writers of the twentieth century.

THE HYPHEN (-)

RULE 1: Use the hyphen to spell out numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine.

INCORRECT: Twenty three people attended our party last night.

CORRECT: Twenty-three people attended our party last night.

RULE 2: Use the hyphen for compound adjectives (two or more adjectives used as a unit to modify a noun).

INCORRECT: Last semester, I took a twentieth century philosophy class.

CORRECT: Last semester, I took a twentieth-century philosophy class.

The two words twentieth and century work as a unit to modify the noun philosophy, so we must hyphenate them.

Do not use a hyphen with one-word adjectives or with an adjective/adverb modifier.

INCORRECT: My class examines American history of the twentieth-century.

CORRECT: My class examines American history of the twentieth century.

INCORRECT: He wrote a poorly-constructed outline of his essay.

CORRECT: He wrote a poorly constructed outline of his essay.

PARENTHESES ( )

RULE 1: Use parentheses to enclose additional, nonessential information (an aside or a clarification). Ensure the information within parentheses is truly extra and not crucial to the reader’s understanding of the sentence’s meaning.

INCORRECT: (My sister) who lives in Tennessee gave birth last week.

CORRECT: My sister (who lives in Tennessee) gave birth last week.

RULE 2: Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.

INCORRECT: Please read the report (enclosed as Attachment 1.)

CORRECT: Please read the report (enclosed as Attachment 1).

CORRECT: Please be sure to read the report. (You will find it under “Reports” on the Employment link on our web page.)

QUOTATION MARKS (“”)

We use quotation marks primarily to do exactly what their name implies: to mark quotations. However, they do serve a few other useful purposes, such as serving as a place marker for omitted letters and numbers. Note in particular the distinctions listed below in using quotation marks properly, including when to use double (“”) versus single (‘’) quotation marks.

RULE 1: Place double quotation marks around a direct quotation, meaning a statement taken directly from a speech or text.

INCORRECT: Mahatma Ghandi’s famous statement, Be the change you wish to see in the world, clearly had a profound impact on Martin’s work.

CORRECT: Mahatma Ghandi’s famous statement, “Be the change you wish to see in the world,” clearly had a profound impact on Martin’s work.

RULE 2: Place double quotation marks around the titles of smaller works, such as short stories, essays, newspaper articles, magazine articles, journal articles, song titles, most poems’ titles, television episode titles, and chapter titles.

INCORRECT: William Faulkner’s short story A Rose for Emily remains a classic within American literature.

CORRECT: William Faulkner’s short story “A Rose for Emily” remains a classic within American literature.

INCORRECT: The Simpsons episode Homer’s Head addresses the deep-seated nature of American anti-intellectualism.

CORRECT: The Simpsons episode “Homer’s Head” addresses the deep-seated nature of American anti-intellectualism.

RULE 3: Use double quotation marks to cast suspicion on the meaning or usage of a term or phrase. For example, consider the differing meanings of the pairs of sentences below:

EXAMPLE 1:

The progress in Austin, TX, marches forward.

The “progress” in Austin, TX, marches forward.

EXAMPLE 2:

Real men wear pink.

“Real” men wear pink.

EXAMPLE 3:

The senator’s concern for students’ welfare was evident.

The senator’s concern for “student welfare” was evident.

The pairs of sentences in all three examples contain the exact same phrasing, but do they relay the same meaning? The addition of the quotation marks alerts readers that the words within are to be understood ironically—and thus the meanings of the sentences drastically change with the addition of the quotation marks.

This strategy can be used to:

1. CONVEY MEANING SUCCINCTLY. Instead of simply writing out, “Other people praise the growth and urban development of Austin as ‘progress,’ but I don’t believe it is,” the writer of example 1 has quickly conveyed this message to readers by adding the quotation marks.

2. DRAW ATTENTION TO CERTAIN WORDS AND/OR PHRASES. The writer of example 2 draws our attention to the notion of “real” men by placing quotation marks around the word. This strategy allows the writer to confront the term and thus spur readers to think on it more deeply. For example, the writer may want readers to wonder: “What is a ‘real’ man? What does that term mean? Are there ‘fake’ men?”

Remember, encouraging readers to think more deeply on the topic is one of your goals as an academic writer. Using quotation marks to cast suspicion on terms or phrases can help you achieve this goal. However, be careful not to overuse this quotation mark function. If every other sentence you write contains an ironic use of quotation marks, they will lose their effect—and readers will become bored and irritated. Use them once, or twice at the most, in a five- to seven-page essay.

RULE 4: Use single quotations (‘’) to mark a quotation within a quotation.

INCORRECT: The reporter told us, “When I interviewed the winner and asked him about great writing, he simply said, “There is no secret. Only hard work, determination, and confidence.”

CORRECT: The reporter told us, “When I interviewed the winner and asked him about great writing, he simply said, ‘There is no secret. Only hard work, determination, and confidence.’”

THE APOSTROPHE (’)

The apostrophe has two primary uses: It represents omitted letters or numbers, and it shows possession.

RULE 1: Place the apostrophe in the position of the omitted letter(s) or number(s).

INCORRECT: We dont have all the answers.

CORRECT: We don’t have all the answers.

The apostrophe represents the missing letter o from the word not. Thus we must place an apostrophe to stand in for the missing letter: “We do not have all the answers.”

INCORRECT: Many scholars write about the turbulence within the twentieth century, especially within the 60’s.

CORRECT: Many scholars write about the turbulence within the twentieth century, especially within the ’60s.

The apostrophe represents the missing numbers 1 and 9 to indicate the century to which the writer refers, so we must place it where the omitted numbers would be: “Many scholars write about the turbulence within the twentieth century, especially within the 1960s.”

Exercise caution when using apostrophes to abbreviate decades; be sure you clearly establish what specific time period your work examines before using abbreviations to indicate a decade. For example, if you examine comedic family television texts of the 1960s, then it may be fine to write “in the ’60s ….” However, when writers simply include a reference to the ’40s, readers may not know whether the referenced decade is the 1940s, 1840s, 1740s, and so on. When in doubt, ask your instructor whether it is acceptable for you to use the apostrophe to abbreviate a decade. If you are uncertain, the safest bet is to include the century.

RULE 2: Use the apostrophe to indicate possession.

· SINGULAR NOUNS: Add an apostrophe and the letter s to the end of any singular noun to indicate possession.

INCORRECT: The dogs bone sat on his dish.

CORRECT: The dog’s bone sat on his dish.

This rule includes singular nouns that end in s.

INCORRECT: Texas’ laws on theft are harsher than virtually any other state’s.

CORRECT: Texas’s laws on theft are harsher than virtually any other state’s.3

· PLURAL NOUNS: Add only an apostrophe after the letter s of plural nouns to indicate possession. Do not add another s. Use s’ only for words that are both plural and possessive.

INCORRECT: The boys’s books sit stacked on the desk.

CORRECT: The boys books sit stacked on the desk.

Consider the difference between the following two sentences:

The boy’s books sit stacked on the desk.

The boys’ books sit stacked on the desk.

The first sentence indicates that one boy’s books sit stacked on a desk; the second sentence indicates that multiple boys have books that sit stacked on a desk.

ELLIPSIS (…)

The ellipsis is a highly valuable, yet underutilized, punctuation mark because many students either do not know what it is or they lack the confidence to use it. However, the ellipsis comes in handy, particularly when citing research, so it is to your benefit to learn how to use it properly.

The ellipsis is a set of three periods that indicate the omission of a word or set of words omitted from the citation of a quotation: (…)

Use the ellipsis to omit a word, phrase, or sentence from a source. You will likely encounter material that you wish to quote in your work, but you may not want to quote all of it. The ellipsis allows writers to use only the material needed from a source.

However, use caution when incorporating ellipses: Always heed the excellent advice contained within the MLA Handbook in relation to the use of ellipses. When including an ellipsis in your work, “be guided by two principles: fairness to the author quoted and the grammatical integrity of your writing. A quotation should never be presented in a way that could cause a reader to misunderstand the sentence structure of the original source” (97).

Follow the ellipses rules below to ensure proper usage.

RULE 1: For an ellipsis within a sentence, use three periods with a space before each and a space after the last:

ORIGINAL MATERIAL

“When we are unhurried and wise, we perceive that only great and worthy things have any permanent and absolute existence, that petty fears and petty pleasures are but the shadow of the reality” (Thoreau 139-40).

QUOTATION WITH ELLIPSIS

Thoreau encourages us to be more present and fight the urge to rush from one activity to the next. He teaches us that by slowing down, we can truly learn what is valuable: “When we are unhurried and wise… only great and worthy things have any permanent and absolute existence, that petty fears and petty pleasures are but the shadow of the reality” (Thoreau 139-40).

RULE 2: To use an ellipsis at the end of a sentence followed by a citation, use three periods with a space before each and then place the sentence’s period after the parenthesis. Do not place parentheses or brackets around ellipses—unless including them would clarify your use of the ellipses.

QUOTATION WITH ELLIPSIS

Thoreau succinctly teaches us the value of taking our time: “When we are unhurried and wise, we perceive that only great and worthy things have any permanent and absolute existence…” (139-40).


1 In some disciplines, such as journalism, placing the comma before the final item in the list is optional; however, the MLA Handbook advocates for its inclusion, so if you are uncertain what your professor prefers, just ask.

2 The 2009 edition of the MLA Handbook, the authority on punctuation use in North America, has officially banned the use of underlining for titles of major works. Though you may have learned in previous classes that the writer can either underline or italicize the titles of large works so long as this use remained consistent throughout the work, now writers must italicize, not underline.

3 The second sentence often looks incorrect to many readers, and in fact different collegiate handbooks often offer conflicting information on this rule. So which method is correct and according to whom?

The writers of the 2009 edition of the MLA Style Manual advocate the second example (add an apostrophe and an s to any singular noun to indicate possession—even those singular nouns ending in s [3.4.7e, 96]). Since most academics turn first to this book with regard to grammar rules, I recommend you follow the advice of its authors. However, when in doubt, ask your instructor.