The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes, 11th Edition (2014)

Chapter 1. Grammar

Finding Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects

Note

We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.

Definitions

· A noun is a word or set of words for a person, place, thing, or idea. A noun of more than one word (tennis court, gas station) is called a compound noun.

There are common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are words for a general class of people, places, things, and ideas (man, city, award, honesty). They are not capitalized. Proper nouns are always capitalized. They name specific people, places, and things (Joe, Chicago, Academy Award).

For more on nouns, see Chapter Two, “Apostrophes,” Rules 2a through 2e.

· A verb is a word or set of words that shows action (runs, is going, has been painting); feeling (loves, envies); or state of being (am, are, is, have been, was, seem).

State-of-being verbs are called linking verbs. They include all forms of the verb to be, plus such words as look, feel, appear, act, go, followed by an adjective. (See the “Adjectives and Adverbs” section later in this chapter.)

Verbs often consist of more than one word. For instance, had been breaking down is a four-word verb. It has a two-word main verb, breaking down (also called a phrasal verb), and two helping verbs (had and been). Helping verbs are so named because they help clarify the intended meaning.

Many verbs can function as helping verbs, including is, shall, must, do, has, can, keep, get, start, help, etc.

· A subject is the noun, pronoun (see the “Pronouns” section later in this chapter), or set of words that performs the verb.

Rule 1. To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb.

Rule 2. Sentences can have more than one subject and more than one verb.

Rule 3. If a verb follows to, it is called an infinitive, and it is not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or after the infinitive.

Note

One of the most stubborn superstitions in English is that it is wrong to insert a word between the to and the verb in an infinitive. This is called a split infinitive (to gladly pay, to not go). There is no English scholar alive who will say a split infinitive is technically wrong. However, split infinitives tend to be clumsy and unnecessary. Experienced writers do not use them without good reason.

Rule 4. Any request or command, such as Stop! or Walk quickly, has the understood subject you, because if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be “you.”

Subject-Verb Agreement

Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-verb agreement.

Basic rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following sentence:

Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.

Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:

If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.

Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.

But note these exceptions:

In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.

Rule 5. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.

Rule 6. With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, majority, some, all, etc.—Rule 1 given earlier is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Note

In recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none to be strictly singular. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: “Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism.” When none is clearly intended to mean “not one,” it is followed by a singular verb.

Rule 7. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.

Note

The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say “there's” than “there are.” Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.

Rule 8. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit.

Rule 9. Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience, etc., may take either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use in the sentence.

Note

Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even better as:

Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:

Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.

In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular subject I.

Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech and writing.

Clauses and Phrases

Definitions

· A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can stand on its own.

· A dependent clause cannot stand on its own. It needs an independent clause to complete a sentence. Dependent clauses often begin with such words as although, since, if, when, and because.

· A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb component, used as a single part of speech.

Pronouns

Definition

· A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns heand her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him); or possessive (his).

Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.

I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.

Note

In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English.

Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.

Rule 4. Object pronouns are used everywhere else beyond Rules 1 and 2 (direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves, etc.

Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject:

In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.

Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.

Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:

These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather an adjunct describing the true subject.

Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.

Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.

Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid “one's self,” a common error.

Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.

Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.

If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:

Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.

A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself.

In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.

Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.

Rule 11a. Avoid they and their with singular pronouns.

If the gender is undetermined, you could say Someone brought his or her lunch (more on this option in Rule 11b).

Rule 11b. Singular pronouns must stay singular throughout the sentence.

The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy sentence, even if it is technically correct.

Replacing an ungrammatical sentence with a poorly written correction is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite.

Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or her to make sentences grammatical.

Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble.

Note

Do not combine a subject pronoun and an object pronoun in phrases like her and I or he and me. Whenever and or or links an object pronoun (her, me) and a subject pronoun (he, I), one of those pronouns will always be wrong.

Who vs. Whom

Rule. Use this he/him method to decide whether who or whom is correct:

he = who

him = whom

Note: This rule is compromised by an odd infatuation people have with whom—and not for good reasons. At its worst, the use of whom becomes a form of one-upmanship some employ to appear sophisticated. The following is an example of the pseudo-sophisticated whom.

Learn to spot and avoid this too-common pitfall.

Whoever vs. Whomever

To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, the he/him rule in the previous section applies:

he = whoever

him = whomever

Rule 1. The presence of whoever or whomever indicates a dependent clause. Use whoever or whomever to agree with the verb in that dependent clause, regardless of the rest of the sentence.

Rule 2. When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause, analyze the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.

A word to the wise: Whomever is even more of a vogue word than whom. Many use it indiscriminately to sound cultured, figuring that no one will know any better.

Who, That, Which

Rule 1. Who and sometimes that refer to people. That and which refer to groups or things.

Rule 2a. That introduces what is called an essential clause. Essential clauses add information that is vital to the point of the sentence.

Rule 2b. Which introduces a nonessential clause, which adds supplementary information.

Note

Essential clauses do not have commas introducing or surrounding them, whereas nonessential clauses are introduced or surrounded by commas.

Rule 3. If that has already appeared in a sentence, writers sometimes use which to introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential. This is done to avoid awkward formations.

Note

The distinction between that and which, though a useful guideline, is widely disregarded: Which is routinely used in place of that, even by great writers and journalists, perhaps because it sounds more elegant.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Definitions

· An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come before the word they modify.

Adjectives may also follow the word they modify:

· An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

An adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extent—how often or how much (e.g., daily, completely).

Rule 1. Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.

Rule 2. Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems. It can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached. Avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbs, such as taste, smell, look, feel, etc., that pertain to the senses. Adverbs are often misplaced in such sentences, which require adjectives instead.

Rule 3. The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well.

Rule 4. The word well can be an adjective, too. When referring to health, we often use well rather than good.

Rule 5. Adjectives come in three forms, also called degrees. An adjective in its normal or usual form is called a positive degree adjective. There are also the comparative and superlative degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the following examples:

A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form of comparison. To compare two things, always use a comparative adjective:

The word cleverest is what is called the superlative form of clever. Use it only when comparing three or more things:

Rule 6. There are also three degrees of adverbs. In formal usage, do not drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparative form.

Rule 7. When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.

Prepositions

Definition

· A preposition is a word that indicates location (in, near, beside) or some other relationship (about, after, besides) between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence. A preposition isn't a preposition unless it goes with a related noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition.

Rule 1. A preposition generally, but not always, goes before its noun or pronoun. One of the undying myths of English grammar is that you may not end a sentence with a preposition. But look at the first example that follows. No one should feel compelled to say, or even write, That is something with which I cannot agree. Just do not use extra prepositions when the meaning is clear without them.

Rule 2a. The preposition like means “similar to” or “similarly to.” It should be followed by an object of the preposition (noun, pronoun, noun phrase), not by a subject and verb. Rule of thumb: Avoid like when a verb is involved.

Rule 2b. Instead of like, use as, as if, as though, or the way when following a comparison with a subject and verb.

Some speakers and writers, to avoid embarrassment, use as when they mean like. The following incorrect sentence came from a grammar guide:

Remember: like means “similar to” or “similarly to”; as means “in the same manner that.” Rule of thumb: Do not use as unless there is a verb involved.

Note

The rule distinguishing like from as, as if, as though, and the way is increasingly ignored, but English purists still insist upon it.

Rule 3. The preposition of should never be used in place of the helping verb have.

Rule 4. Follow different with the preposition from. Things differ from other things; avoid different than.

Rule 5. Use into rather than in to express motion toward something. Use in to tell the location.

Effective Writing

Rule 1. Use concrete rather than vague language.

Rule 2. Use active voice whenever possible. Active voice means the subject is performing the verb. Passive voice means the subject receives the action.

Notice that the party responsible for the action—in the previous example, whoever hit the ball—may not even appear when using passive voice. So passive voice is a useful option when the responsible party is not known.

Note

The passive voice has often been criticized as something employed by people in power to avoid responsibility:

Rule 3. Avoid overusing there is, there are, it is, it was, etc.

Rule 4. To avoid confusion (and pompousness), don't use two negatives to make a positive without good reason.

Sometimes a not un- construction may be desirable, perhaps even necessary:

However, the novelist-essayist George Orwell warned of its abuse with this deliberately silly sentence: “A not unblack dog was chasing a not unsmall rabbit across a not ungreen field.”

Rule 5. Use consistent grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called parallel construction.

Rule 6. Word order can make or ruin a sentence. If you start a sentence with an incomplete phrase or clause, such as While crossing the street or Forgotten by history, it must be followed closely by the person or thing it describes. Furthermore, that person or thing is always the main subject of the sentence. Breaking this rule results in the dreaded, all-too-common dangling modifier, or dangler.

Adding -ing to a verb (as in crossing in the example that follows) results in a versatile word called a participle, which can be a noun, adjective, or adverb. Rule 6 applies to all sentences with a participle in the beginning. Participles require placing the actor immediately after the opening phrase or clause.

Rule 7. Place descriptive words and phrases as close as is practical to the words they modify.

Rule 8. A sentence fragment is usually an oversight, or a bad idea. It occurs when you have only a phrase or dependent clause but are missing an independent clause.