PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT: Advanced English Grammar for ESL Learners (2011)
13 Gerunds
In this chapter we will examine two aspects of using gerunds: (1) identifying gerunds, and (2) determining the expressed and unexpressed subjects of gerunds.
Identifying gerunds
A gerund is the -ing (present participle) form of a verb used as an abstract noun. For example, look at the following sentence:
Complaining doesn’t do any good.
The gerund complaining is used as a noun that plays the role of the subject of the sentence.
Since gerunds are derived from base-form verbs, gerunds are often used with the complements (such as objects) and adverbs that often accompany the base-form verb. For example, in the following sentence
Answering the phone all day long is not a very exciting job.
The gerund answering is used along with the base-form verb’s object the phone and the adverbial expression all day long. Technically, the term gerund is reserved for just the -ing verb form while the gerund together with its complements and adverbs is called a gerund phrase. Since gerunds and gerund phrases act exactly alike, we will use gerunds as a collective term for both gerunds and gerund phrases unless there is a specific reason to distinguish between a gerund and a gerund phrase. In all example sentences, the gerund will be in bold and the entire gerund phrase will be underlined (as in the example immediately above).
Gerunds can be used in all three of the common noun roles of subject, object, and object of a preposition. (We will discuss the fourth, less common, noun role of predicate nominative later.) For example:
Gerunds cannot be used in all noun positions. The basic rule is that gerunds can be used only where we can also use abstract nouns. Abstract nouns refer to intangible concepts—as opposed to animate and concrete nouns that refer to living things and objects, respectively. Some useful abstract nouns are effort, success, idea, problem, and outcome. It is a good bet that wherever you can use one or more of these abstract nouns, you can also use a gerund. For example, see how all the gerunds above are used in places where abstract nouns could also be used:
Noun positions that require animate or concrete nouns will not allow gerunds. For example, the verb jump over requires an animate subject:
__________________jumped over the fence and ran away.
None of our test abstract nouns can be used as subjects with this verb:
X The effort jumped over the fence and ran away.
X Success jumped over the fence and ran away.
X The idea jumped over the fence and ran away.
X The problem jumped over the fence and ran away.
X The outcome jumped over the fence and ran away.
As we would expect, it is impossible to use gerunds as subjects of the verb jump over:
X Answering my e-mails jumped over the fence and ran away.
X Losing a close game jumped over the fence and ran away.
The verb crash requires a concrete subject:
__________________crashed to the ground.
None of our test abstract nouns can be used as subjects of crash:
X The effort crashed to the ground.
X Success crashed to the ground.
X The idea crashed to the ground.
X The problem crashed to the ground.
X The outcome crashed to the ground.
Accordingly, we cannot use gerunds as subjects of the verb crash:
X Answering my e-mails crashed to the ground.
X Losing a close game crashed to the ground.
EXERCISE 13.1
Each of the following sentences has a blank space where a noun belongs. Use the test abstract nouns effort, success, problem, idea, or outcome to determine whether or not gerunds could be used in that noun space. If the abstract nouns do not make sense, write “no gerund.” If they do make sense, write “gerund” and confirm your answer by writing an appropriate gerund in the space. The first question is done as an example.
__________________ made us rethink what we were doing.
Gerund The outcome made us rethink what we were doing.
Getting such poor results made us rethink what we were doing.
1. __________________ proved that we were capable of doing the job.
2. __________________ wished that we had more time.
3. They need to encourage __________________.
4. I am very worried about __________________.
5. John offered __________________ to drive to the airport.
6. Can you explain __________________?
7. We fully support __________________.
8. I argued against __________________.
9. The kids ate __________________ for breakfast this morning.
10. The media dismissed __________________ as unimportant.
The first step in learning how to use gerunds is knowing how to identify them. Fortunately, there is a simple and completely reliable test to tell when an -ing verb form is being used as a noun: replace the gerund phrase (or gerund if it is used by itself) with the pronoun it. Using the it pronoun test works because gerunds are always singular. Also, we don’t have to worry about subject or object forms because it can be used in either role. The it substitution test is also extremely helpful in that it exactly defines the boundary of the entire gerund phrase. Here is the it pronoun replacement test used with the example sentences above:
EXERCISE 13.2
Underline the gerunds in the following sentences. (Note: There may be more than one gerund.) Confirm your answer by using the it substitution test. The first question is done as an example.
1. Finishing my thesis on time required some real sacrifices.
2. You need to think about taking some time off.
3. I really enjoy working in my garden.
4. He insisted on paying the bill.
5. They are not happy about having to attend a seven o’clock meeting.
6. Enjoying one’s work is the key to job satisfaction.
7. I couldn’t stand taking all those statistics classes.
8. He felt a lot better after taking a nap.
9. Taking Latin is really good for improving one’s vocabulary.
10. Getting the early flight will avoid getting stuck in traffic.
Gerunds can also be used for predicate nominatives. Predicate nominatives are nouns that follow linking verbs and are used to describe or rename the subject. For example:
Joan is an economist.
Joan = an economist.
His book became a bestseller.
His book = a bestseller.
Their new office building resembles a minimum-security prison.
Their new office building = a minimum-security prison.
Here are some examples of gerunds used as predicate nominatives:
The biggest problem is getting the job finished on time.
The biggest problem = getting the job finished on time.
The difficulty is acquiring an adequate staff.
The difficulty = acquiring an adequate staff.
My own worry is commuting such a great distance every day.
My own worry = commuting such a great distance every day.
Identifying gerunds used as predicate nominatives is very hard to do because the sequence of be + -ing verb form looks just like the progressive tense. For example, look at the following sentence:
John is talking on the telephone.
Here the sequence of be + -ing verb form is a present-tense progressive, not a gerund used as a predicate nominative. How on earth can we tell such similar-looking forms apart?
There are two reliable tests. The positive test for gerunds is, of course, the it substitution test. For example:
When we try to apply the it substitution test to a progressive, the result is nonsensical. For example,
Talking on the telephone is not a noun phrase. Therefore, talking on the telephone does not rename John or describe who John is:
X John = talking on the telephone
The positive test for deciding if the sequence be + -ing verb form is a progressive tense is to see if you can replace the progressive tense with the past tense. For example:
Since the substitution of the past tense makes perfect sense, we have positive proof that the sequence of is + talking is the progressive form of the verb talk.
Whenever we see the sequence of be + - ing verb form, there are two possible grammatical interpretations:
1. Progressive. be is a helping verb followed by a main verb in an -ing or present participle form.
2. Gerund. be is the main verb followed by a gerund functioning as a predicate nominative.
To see how helpful these two tests are, compare the following sentences that appear identical except for the subject:
John is watching sports on TV.
His main activity is watching sports on TV.
The two sentences look completely parallel, but they are actually totally different.
Sentence 1 is a present progressive as we can show by using the past-tense test:
John is watching sports on TV.
John watched sports on TV.
When we try this same test on sentence 2, the result is nonsensical:
His main activity is watching sports on TV.
X His main activity watched sports on TV.
Sentence 2 is a gerund as we can show by using the it substitution test to show that what follows the verb be is a noun phrase, and since the noun phrase follows the linking verb be, it can only be a predicate nominative that renames the subject:
EXERCISE 13.3
Determine whether the underlined sequences in the following sentences are gerunds or part of progressives. Confirm your answer by using the it and the past-tense substitution tests and an equals statement. The first question is done as an example.
My job is editing tech support documents.
Answer: gerund
Past-tense sub test: X My job edited tech support documents.
Equals statement: My job = editing tech support documents.
1. Every CEO’s dream is beating performance expectations.
Answer: ___________________________________________________
It substitution test: ____________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: _____________________________________________
Equals statement: ______________________________________________
2. My English assignment is summarizing a chapter of the book.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ___________________________________________________
Equals statement: ___________________________________________________
3. A concern of every city in the Southwest is getting enough water.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test:___________________________________________________
Equals statement: ___________________________________________________
4. John is getting pretty good at playing tennis.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ___________________________________________________
Equals statement: ___________________________________________________
5. My problem is remembering everything I am supposed to do.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ____________________________________________
Past-tense sub test:____________________________________________
Equals statement: ____________________________________________
6. Most American companies are providing adequate health insurance.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ___________________________________________________
Equals statement: ___________________________________________________
7. Their great concern is providing adequate health insurance.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ___________________________________________________
Equals statement: ____________________________________________
8. A coach’s responsibility is getting the athletes in good condition.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ____________________________________________
Equals statement: ____________________________________________
9. A big part of an office manager’s job is ordering supplies.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ____________________________________________
Equals statement: ____________________________________________
10. Our office manager is thinking about getting new computers.
Answer: ____________________________________________
It substitution test: ___________________________________________________
Past-tense sub test: ____________________________________________
Equals statement: ____________________________________________
Determining the expressed and unexpressed subjects of gerunds
We saw in the previous section that gerunds are derived directly from verbs. Gerunds carry over many aspects of their underlying source verb. For example, we saw that gerund phrases preserve the complements and adverbs from their base-form verb sources.
The verbs underlying gerunds also have subjects—just as other verbs do. All of the gerunds that we have examined so far have not retained their underlying subjects. We will now refer to these kinds of gerunds as gerunds with unexpressed subjects. Gerunds that have retained their underlying subjects will be called gerunds with expressed subjects. Here are examples of each type:
The unique feature of expressed subjects is that they MUST be in the possessive form. To see how gerunds with expressed subjects are derived, we will use the same convention as we did in Chapter 11, “The structure of adjective clauses,” and put the underlying sentence in parentheses. Here is how we would convert the underlying sentence:
We argued about (Robert changed the deadline)
into an actual gerund phrase. The first step is to change the tensed verb (the past tense changed in this example) into an -ing form, creating the gerund changing:
If we were not preserving the subject of the gerund, we would delete Robert to produce the final sentence with an unexpressed subject:
We argued about changing the deadline.
This is how all the gerunds in this chapter have been produced up to now.
When we preserve the subject from the sentence underlying the gerund, we do so by changing the subject noun phrase into a possessive noun phrase. In this example, we will change the subject noun Robert into the possessive noun Robert’s:
The final form of the sentence is the following:
We argued about Robert’s changing the deadline.
Here is a second example, this time with the entire gerund phrase playing the role of subject of the verb in the main sentence. In this example the subject of the gerund is a pronoun:
EXERCISE 13.4
Each of the following sentences contains a sentence in parentheses. Reduce this sentence to a gerund phrase, retaining the subject as a possessive. Use the same two-step process illustrated above. The first question is done as an example.
The fans were worried about (the team lost its star player).
Step 1: The fans were worried about (the team losing its star player).
Step 2: The fans were worried about the team’s losing its star player.
1. (The bank approves the loan) made it possible for us to go ahead.
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
2. Everyone resented (he unfairly criticized the school board).
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
3. We were delayed by (the children needed to take an afternoon nap).
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
4. (The defendant told a convincing story) persuaded the jury that he was innocent.
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
5. What made her so successful was (she was such a good listener).
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
6. Try to ignore (they behaved so rudely).
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
7. The odds against (he wins the election) were pretty big.
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
8. The campers barely survived (they got lost in the woods).
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
9. (I became sick) nearly spoiled our vacation.
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
10. We all have to get used to (our children grow up and leave home).
Step 1: ____________________________________________________
Step 2: ____________________________________________________
Clearly, when the subject of the gerund is expressed, we know who performed the action of the gerund. The real question, though, is how do we interpret the subject of the gerund when it is unexpressed? Sometimes there is no way to tell the subject of a gerund except from context or some previous knowledge.
Many times, however, our interpretation of unexpressed subjects is guided by a set of default interpretations. There is no guarantee that these interpretations are correct; nevertheless, these are the interpretations that listeners and readers will place on the unex-pressed subjects in the absence of any other information. There are two sets of default interpretations, one for when gerunds are used as subjects of their sentences and a second set for when gerunds are used as objects of verbs or objects of prepositions.
When gerunds are used as subjects, there are two likely default interpretations of their unexpressed subjects. One is that we look for a plausible noun following the main verb that we can use as the unexpressed subject of the gerund. Here are some examples:
Missing that phone call caused Susan a lot of problems later.
Susan is the default unexpressed subject of missing.
Smiling at the customers doesn’t cost you anything.
You is the default unexpressed subject of smiling.
The next example is a bit more complicated:
Getting two cavities caused the dentist to give me a real scolding.
There are two noun phrases that follow the main verb. Dentist, the first noun phrase, does not make sense as the unexpressed subject of getting. The dentist did not scold me because the dentist got two cavities. The dentist scolded me because the speaker (me) got two cavities.
If there is no noun phrase following the main verb that could possibly function as the subject of the gerund, a likely default interpretation is that the gerund is being used to make a generalization. For example:
Missing too many meetings makes a bad impression.
We would all interpret this gerund as a generalization about what happens to people who miss too many meetings.
Here are some more examples of subjectless gerunds used to make generalizations:
Playing a musical instrument takes a big commitment.
Instinctively knowing what to do in a crisis is the mark of a natural leader.
EXERCISE 13.5
Underline the gerunds used as subjects in the following sentences. Determine whether the gerund is used to make a generalization or whether some noun phrase after the verb can serve as the unexpressed subject of the gerund. If it is a generalization, write “generalization.” If the latter case is true, identify which noun phrase it is. The first question is done as an example.
Breaking a small bone in his foot caused the team’s star player to miss three games. the team’s star player is the unexpressed subject of the gerund.
1. Getting it right the first time is the main goal.
2. Running twenty miles a week really helped Sam lose weight.
3. Complaining about the weather all the time is pointless.
4. Talking to Bob about his children’s bad behavior only makes him angry at us.
5. Having to commute hours each way is really hard on a family.
6. Trying to please everybody got her into a lot of trouble.
7. Going back to school for a master’s degree is one of George’s options.
8. Training one’s replacement is something that all good administrators should do.
9. Improving her GPA was Julie’s main reason for going to summer school.
10. Publishing papers is a major part of being a university professor these days.
When gerunds are used as objects of verbs or objects of prepositions (particularly when there is no other noun phrase between the main verb and the gerund), the most common default interpretation of unexpressed subjects is that the subject of the sentence is also the unexpressed subject of the gerund. For example:
EXERCISE 13.6
Each of the following sentences contains a sentence in parentheses that functions as the object of a verb or preposition. Reduce this sentence to a gerund phrase. If the subject of the gerund is identical to the subject of the main verb, delete the subject, creating an unexpressed subject. If the subject of the gerund is different from the subject of the main verb, retain the subject in the appropriate possessive form. The first two questions are done as examples.
The workers debated about (the workers go on strike).
The workers debated about going on strike.
I can’t accept his argument for (the company closes the plant).
I can’t accept his argument for the company’s closing the plant.
1. I deeply regretted (I went back on my promise to them).
2. The ad promoted (families choose a healthier diet).
3. Her family was pleased with (Mary got her degree).
4. I concentrated on (I kept just the right tension on the kite string).
5. We approved of (he ordered pizza for the kids).
6. I asked my advisor about (I go to business school next year).
7. We certainly appreciated (we got such good service).
8. The kids sensed (we began to get worried about the storm).
9. Everyone predicted (our team won the championship).
10. The canoe race totally depended on (the river had enough water).