McGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage, 2nd Edition (2013)

Part II. How to Find and Correct Mistakes

Chapter 8. Pronoun Problems

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns normally have very little meaning by themselves. They are general words that can be used to refer to various types of things, objects, people, places, and ideas.

The best-known pronouns are personal pronouns. These include she, he, we, our, it, and they. However, there are other categories of personal pronouns as well. Some other common pronouns are which, who, somebody, something, each, this, that, and these.

Pronouns are an indispensable part of the English language. In fact, most languages have a part of speech similar to the English pronoun. Because they are used in diverse ways, various rules developed over the years to help distinguish one type of pronoun from another. This chapter includes a discussion of some basic properties of pronouns, but we focus on the most common or most bothersome types of problems that can occur with pronouns.

1. I or me? she or her? he or him? they or them? The title of this section is a bit wordy, but a technical description of the issue seems to lose most readers. In essence, this section focuses on choosing the correct form (case) of a personal pronoun. Unlike nouns, personal pronouns usually take a different form or shape depending on the word’s function in a particular sentence.

Note how the same personal pronoun takes on different shapes in each sentence (pronouns underlined):

Dan told me that I could not leave my car here.

Somebody needs to tell him that he should mind his own business.

In general, most people have few problems using the correct form of a pronoun. However, errors in this regard have a much greater chance of occurring in certain types of sentence structures than in others. This section describes such common structures (especially those involving a pronoun and a coordinating conjunction) and offers tips and strategies for correcting errors involving pronoun form.

2. Who, whom, or that? This section focuses on errors and issues involving three types of pronouns: who, whom, and that. One issue is whether to use who or whom in a particular sentence. The other issue—often considered less serious—is when to use that rather than the other two pronouns. These are actually two distinct matters even though both involve the same three pronouns.

The pronouns who and whom are really not interchangeable despite their shared meanings and functions. You should use who when the pronoun has a subject function, saving whom for the object function. We provide a more accessible way to understand this complex issue. Following are two correct uses of these pronouns (underlined):

I do not know who is ready to eat.
You forget to whom you are speaking.

Even though modern usage allows that to be used in various ways, the conventional rule of thumb is you should not use that to refer to humans; rather, you should use that only when referring to ideas, animals, or inanimate objects. In this first sentence, that is incorrectly used to refer to a specific person. The second sentence correctly uses who to refer to the teacher.

X Mavis saw the teacher that once gave her an F in English.
Mavis saw the teacher who once gave her an F in English.

3. Vague pronouns: As noted earlier, pronouns have little if any meaning by themselves. One way they mean something is by taking the place of an earlier noun (or another pronoun). Here, the pronoun it refers back to boat:

Pat saw a boat she wanted, but it cost far too much.

Not all pronouns have to refer back to such a noun (for instance, the pronoun everyone does not). This section applies to various types of pronouns that do refer to a previous word. The basic rule is that such pronouns must clearly refer back to a noun or pronoun. However, we focus on the three pronouns that seem to account for the vast majority of vague pronoun errors: this, that, and it.

4. Reflexive pronouns: problems with “-self” and “-selves” words: One type of pronoun is the reflexive pronoun. This category includes the “-self” and “-selves” pronouns, such as myself, herself, and ourselves. These are common words that usually do not lead to significant problems. However, this section describes various problems that do occur with reflexive pronouns.

One serious problem involves using reflexive pronouns that do not truly exist, at least not in formal English. There are no such words as his-self and theirselves. The correct forms are himself and themselves.

Another problem arises when people mistakenly use a reflexive pronoun when another pronoun, such as me or I, should be used. Here is an example of such an error:

X Sean made a dessert for Carol and myself.

This section briefly notes also that reflexive pronouns are often overused. They should be used when something does something to itself:

He also burnt himself in the process.

5. Pronoun agreement errors: Some pronouns refer back to a previous word (an antecedent). Personal pronouns such as he and she must always have an antecedent. Such pronouns must logically refer back to their antecedents so that they are in agreement about matters such as gender or number.

One problem is that certain pronouns seem to be plural (more than one) yet actually are singular. In the following example, everybody is singular. However, a later pronoun that refers back to everybody is plural, creating a pronoun agreement error.

X Everybody will need to return their forms on time to be considered for the job.

Pronouns and antecedents also agree in terms of gender. For instance, a “female” pronoun should refer to a “female” antecedent. A related issue involves avoiding sexist pronouns. In particular, do not use pronouns such as he and his when referring to both men and women. We offer a simple suggestion for avoiding such problems altogether.

I or Me? She or Her? He or Him? They or Them?

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. There are several different types of pronouns, but the most commonly known is the personal pronoun (see Chapter 1). Some personal pronouns are I, she, he, they, it, and you.

Personal pronouns are unlike any other type of pronoun (or noun, for that matter) in the English language. The peculiarities of the “shape-shifting” personal pronoun often lead to errors when people use an incorrect form. (Some people refer to this matter as case.) The problem stems not just from the fact that personal pronouns change their appearance depending on how they are used but also from the fact that personal pronouns do not share the same rules for how they change. The most common errors occur when people mistakenly make the wrong choice when choosing between four pairs: I versus me, she versus her, he versus him, and they versus them.

A personal pronoun might change in appearance a little, greatly, or not all, depending on how the pronoun is used. For example, I becomes me when it is receiving action rather than giving it:

Personal pronouns are not consistent in the way such changes occur. Note, for example, that the pronoun you would not change shape if it replaced I and me in the pair of examples just given.

Though not required to understand the focus of this section, the table that follows includes a complete listing of personal pronouns and how they change shape depending on their function.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR FORMS

I Versus Me, She Versus Her, He Versus Him, and They Versus Them

Fortunately, not all pronouns lead to problems related to form. The four pairs most involved in such errors are I versus me, she versus her, he versus him, and they versus them. Following are sample errors with the incorrect pronoun underlined:

X Colleen and him traveled to Birmingham this weekend.

X The identity of the masked assailant is known only to you and he.

X It is up to they to decide who can leave.

X The committee elected Jean and I cochairs for next year.

X It was me who called.

As illustrated, the errors can involve different sentence structures, making it more difficult to learn the correct rule. Fortunately, there is a rule that applies to these diverse situations. First, we will cover the technical guideline, and then we will offer a simpler approach.

Avoiding the Problem: A Technical Explanation

Use the subject form when the pronoun is either the subject of a verb or the subject complement. Use the object form when the pronoun has any other function.

More on Subject and Object Forms

The subject form of a personal pronoun is what the name suggests: the form you use when the pronoun is the subject of a verb, as in the following (pronoun underlined):

I went to work early.

The object form is the form you use when a pronoun is receiving an action, as here:

Sarah called me.

The subject and object forms actually do more than act as subjects or recipients of actions. However, half of the problem can be solved by understanding which forms you should associate with these two terms.

Grammar Tip: Subject and Object Forms

The subject form of any pronoun is what you would use to fill in the blank in a sentence such as “_______ ran.” The object form is what you would use in a sentence such as “The ball hit _______.”

Consider the technical rule again. Use the subject form when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence, as shown in the following (pronouns underlined):

Colleen and he traveled to Birmingham this weekend.
Yesterday, they went to work early.
Shirley and I arrived just in time to catch the plane to Denver.

The rule also states that you should use the subject form when the pronoun is a subject complement, which is a fancy way of saying the pronoun comes right after a verb such as is, am, are, was, or were. Following are examples of pronouns correctly used in this way (underlined):

It was I who called.

The person you want is he.

Needless to say, following the formal rule in such sentences seems stuffy (even awkward). In informal English, many people do not follow the rule in regard to subject complements, and usually nobody complains.

The other half of the technical rule indicates you should use the object form in other situations. That is, if the pronoun is not a subject (or a subject complement), use the object form (underlined):

The identity of the masked assailant is known only to you and him.

It is up to them to decide who can leave.

The committee elected Jean and me cochairs for next year.

Only in the last example is the object form the recipient of an action (a direct object), but the object form is used correctly in all three sentences.

Avoiding the Problem: A Less Technical Explanation

If a verb appears right after the pronoun, use the subject form. If there is not a verb immediately afterward, use the object form. This hint will work most of the time.

More on Verbs After the Pronoun

The technical rule given earlier is best in that it is more complete, but this second approach should work 90 percent of the time and is easier to apply.

Following are three examples already used. Note how the pronoun (underlined once) is followed by the verb (underlined twice), meaning you should indeed use the subject form:

Colleen and to Birmingham this weekend.

Yesterday, to work early.

Shirley and just in time to catch the plane to Denver.

As noted, looking for a verb after the pronoun does not work with subject complements. In It was I who called, I is formally correct even though I is not followed by a verb. As seen in these next two examples, you could also have an adverb between a pronoun and its verb. Technically, a verb does not come immediately after each pronoun in these examples, but the tip should work with such sentences if you realize the adverbs are optional and could be deleted or moved elsewhere.

Colleen and he reluctantly to Birmingham this weekend.

Yesterday, they almost to work early.

As stated, use the object form when the pronoun is not followed by a verb. Notice how the next examples are followed by nothing at all or by something that is not a verb. You do not have to know what part of speech does appear right afterward, as long as you know it is not a verb. Here, though, we have indicated what type of word (if any) comes after the pronoun:

The identity of the masked assailant is known only to you and me.

Grammar Tip: Pronouns in Compound Structures

If you are using a pronoun in a compound structure, reword the sentence using just the pronoun. This test sentence will help make sure you are using the right form in the original.

As illustrated in earlier examples, a frequent situation involving pronoun errors is when the pronoun is part of a compound structure (most commonly, when and is used to combine the pronoun with a noun or another pronoun). For some reason, people will use an incorrect form when they would never do so if the pronoun were used by itself. That is the basis of our second tip: reword the sentence so you use only the pronoun in the original sentence. The resulting test sentence will not read properly if you are using the incorrect pronoun, as in the following (pronouns underlined):

Original Sentence

The test sentences sound ridiculous, but the original sentences contain the same mistake. To correct the originals, use the same pronoun you would use if the pronoun were used alone. Following are corrections of these errors:

Colleen and he traveled to Birmingham this weekend.

Shirley and I arrived just in time to catch the plane to Denver.

The committee elected Jean and me cochairs for next year.

Summary

• Personal pronouns have subject and object forms.

• Four pairs of pronouns cause the most problems in regard to choosing the correct form: I versus me, she versus her, he versus him, and they versus them.

• Use the subject form when the pronoun is (1) the subject of a verb or (2) a subject complement.

• Use the object form when the pronoun has another function.

• A simpler guideline is to use the subject form when a verb appears right afterward. Otherwise, use the object form.

• Be careful when using personal pronouns in a compound structure. Use the same form you would if the pronoun appeared by itself.

Who, Whom, or That?

Who, whom, and that are pronouns. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Actually, that can be other parts of speech as well, but its use as a pronoun causes some confusion. In these examples, the pronouns (underlined) are all used correctly:

You are speaking to whom?

Ricardo is a person whom we can trust.

I know who left early on Monday.

Who is ready?

Though a subject of debate, most modern reference books on grammar indicate this example of that is correct:

? We all need a leader that will improve morale.

What’s the Problem?

There are two common errors involving these three pronouns, but both involve deciding which pronoun should be used in a particular sentence. The first and more significant error deals with choosing who or whom. The second is mistakenly using that when one of the other two pronouns should be used. (The pronouns whoever and whomever are also confused with one another, though they are used much less often. The following discussion applies to these two pronouns as well.)

Avoiding the Problem: Who Versus Whom

Use the subject form who when the pronoun is used as the subject for a verb. Use the object form whom when the pronoun has any other function. Sometimes you must move the pronoun around to determine its function.

Who Versus Whom

Like some personal pronouns, who takes on a different shape when used as a direct object or any function besides a subject. Most people realize there is a difference between who and whom; the problem is remembering which form goes with what function. One solution is simply to remember the rule: use the subject form only when the pronoun is a subject. (See Chapter 7 for information on subjects and verbs.) In these examples, note how the pronoun (underlined once) is the subject of the verb (underlined twice):

I know early on Monday.

ready?

Grammar Tip: A Verb Afterward

If the pronoun is quickly followed by a verb, use who.

This tip will work most of the time because a subject is normally followed immediately by a verb, as seen in the two examples just given. (It is possible, though, to have an adverb such as almost coming between a subject and its verb.)

The object form whom is used in other situations. In the following sentences, whom is not followed by a verb and is not the subject of a verb. Thus, whom is the correct choice.

You are speaking to whom?

Ricardo is a person whom we can trust.

The second example is harder to analyze because whom is out of order. Even though the sentence is correct, our intuition tells us whom should come after trust, for whom is the object (the direct object) of the act of trust. You do not have to worry about where whom is placed, however, if you follow the “verb afterward” tip. Is there a verb right after whom? No, so do not use who.

Grammar Tip: Him and Whom

Both him and whom end in the letter m, and both are object forms. Use whom only when him (not he) would be the appropriate choice. You might have to move words around and look only at part of the sentence to apply this tip.

This second tip is gimmicky, but it works. Even when whom refers to a female in your sentence, use him in a paraphrase. If him works, use whom. If him does not work, use who.

In these two examples, him would be the better choice, meaning whom is appropriate:

To apply this tip, focus on the part of the sentence involving the pronoun. In the first example, you might as well consider all of the sentence, but in the second example you have to look just at the part of the sentence in which the pronoun is either a subject or an object.

Consider the reverse of this tip: when he works better than him. Here are two instances where him clearly does not work, meaning who is indeed correct:

Avoiding the Problem: That Versus Who/Whom

Avoid using that to refer to actual people. Instead, use who or whom. Most readers consider it acceptable, however, to use that when referring to a category or type of person.

That Versus Who/Whom

Up until near the end of the last century, it was considered incorrect to use that to refer to people, but the rules have eased, at least in regard to certain types of sentences. Still, we suggest you never use that to refer to a particular person or persons. In the following errors, that is used to refer back to specific individuals (a boy and a physician):

X You should thank the boy that returned your lost dog.

X Dr. Dolittle is a physician that I strongly recommend.

Some people use that to avoid having to choose between who and whom. Once you understand the rule governing the use of who/whom, you know the correct versions of the preceding sentences are as follows:

You should thank the boy who returned your lost dog.

Dr. Dolittle is a physician whom I strongly recommend.

As mentioned, the rules have recently relaxed—somewhat. Most grammar textbooks and style guides still indicate you must use who or whom when referring to specific people. But a number also indicate you can use that to refer to a category or type of person, as seen here:

? We all need a leader that will improve morale.
? Any worker that arrives late will be given a warning.

In both examples, that refers back to a type of person, not to someone in particular. Therefore, that is an acceptable choice for many readers. But what if your readers do not approve of that used in this way, or what if you use thatwhen you incorrectly believe it refers to a type of person (a term that is not altogether clear at times)? For these reasons, we suggest you avoid using that at all to refer to people.

Save that for inanimate objects, animals, ideas, etc. These examples are perfectly fine uses of that:

We all need a system that will improve morale.
Any payment that arrives late will be returned.

Summary

• The pronouns who and whom are not interchangeable, for who is the subject form while whom is the object form.

• Use who when it is the subject of a verb; otherwise, use whom.

• Usually, you can look at the word right after the pronoun to determine which form to use. Use who if there is a verb right afterward; use whom otherwise.

• You can also associate whom with him (both end in the letter m). Use whom when him makes better sense. Use who when he works best.

• Avoid using that to refer back to people, although some readers consider it acceptable to use that if it refers to an abstract category of people.

Vague Pronouns

As explained earlier, a pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Many people associate the term pronoun with words such as he, she, it, you, and they. However, there are other types of pronouns as well, such as everybody, which, who, whom, each, that, and this.

Some—but not all—pronouns “bend back” to refer to a previous noun or pronoun. That is, some pronouns derive their meaning by referring back to an antecedent. In this example, the pronoun it bends back to refer to the word dog:

If it did not have an antecedent, the pronoun would not have meaning. In the next example, the pronoun this means something only if readers connect the pronoun with the antecedent (wallet):

Pronouns that often (or always) require antecedents include the following:

As we will discuss shortly, the guidelines and suggestions in this section apply to various pronouns, but we will focus on three particular pronouns: this, that, and it.

What’s the Problem?

Pronouns that require an antecedent must clearly refer back to a previous noun or pronoun. When they fail to do so, a vague pronoun results, meaning that the writer or speaker is not communicating effectively. The blame tends to be placed on the vague pronoun, but usually the source of the problem is the lack of a clear antecedent.

In this example, the underlined pronoun does not clearly refer back to one noun or pronoun:

X I had to run outside even though the weather was terrible, and it was bad.

Does it refer to the weather, to running outside, or to both? True, we understand the basic idea of the sentence, and the statement might be fine in informal communication when precision is not so important. Nonetheless, the rule is that you should avoid vague pronouns in formal writing—or in any situation when you want to communicate your ideas as exactly as possible.

Avoiding the Problem

If a pronoun needs an antecedent, make sure the pronoun refers back to the nearest logical noun or pronoun.

Three Guidelines for Avoiding Vague Pronouns

We can suggest three specific guidelines for avoiding vague pronouns.

1. The antecedent must be a previous noun or pronoun.

2. Whenever possible, place the pronoun and its antecedent in the same sentence. They usually support each other best when placed in the same sentence. If necessary, the antecedent can be in the sentence immediately preceding the pronoun.

3. Avoid having any other noun or pronoun come between a pronoun and its antecedent. If it is impractical to adhere to this suggestion, make sure the intervening noun or pronoun could not logically refer to the pronoun.

Antecedents Must Be Nouns or Pronouns. The first suggestion is a rule: an antecedent must be a noun or pronoun. Remember that the definition of a pronoun states it is a word that takes the place of a noun or pronoun and not any other part of speech and certainly not an entire sentence, paragraph, etc. In this next error, that seems to refer to an entire sentence:

X Joanna went to the park yesterday and played with her children. That was nice.

Even if you think you understand what that means, the sentence is grammatically incorrect because pronouns take the place of nouns or pronouns, not sentences.

Pronouns and Antecedents Need to Be Close. The second suggestion is not a true rule. However, placing the antecedent and pronoun in the same sentence reduces the possibility that readers will be confused about the meaning of your pronoun. It is still possible to have a clear pronoun if the antecedent is in the sentence right before the pronoun. In both examples that follow, the pronoun and antecedent are sufficiently close:

Intervening Nouns and Pronouns Should Be Avoided. All of the correct examples provided so far also follow our third guideline, for not having any noun or pronoun placed between a pronoun and an antecedent. The problem with putting a noun or pronoun in this position is that readers might mistakenly assume it is the antecedent. In this next example, is it referring to monitor or computer?

X Tyrone’s computer, which has a new monitor, is expensive; it is not working properly.

Based on this sentence alone, we cannot determine what the writer intended it to mean. Because monitor is the closest noun, it—grammatically speaking—must refer to monitor. Even if that meaning is indeed what the writer intended, the sentence is still poorly written because many readers will think that the computer, not the monitor, is working improperly. To correct such a problem, the sentence must be reworded so readers do not have to choose between two or more possible antecedents. Here is one possible revision:

Tyrone’s expensive computer is not working properly, and he just bought a new monitor for it.

Look again at the revision. This rewrite happens to contain the pronoun it to refer to computer, which appears much earlier in the sentence. Our third guideline indicates you should avoid having other nouns or pronouns come between a pronoun and its antecedent, yet the pronoun he comes between computer and it. As we also indicated, you can have an intervening noun or pronoun if this word could not logically be an antecedent. Our revision would not make sense at all if it stood for he. Thus, this sentence illustrates how you might put a noun or pronoun between the pronoun and antecedent. It is essential, however, that there be no way the pronoun could refer to this intervening word.

Grammar Tip: This, That, and It

When precision is important, keep an eye on your uses of this, that, and it to make sure they follow the three guidelines noted earlier. These three pronouns are especially prone to being used in vague ways.

The Perils of This and That as Pronouns

As noted, the guidelines and rules covered in this section apply to all pronouns requiring an antecedent, but we have focused on this, that, and it. Most people are surprised when told these are the pronouns most often involved in vague pronoun errors, but these three pronouns are indeed most likely to have unclear antecedents. Certainly, you can use all three correctly, and it would be impossible to eliminate these words altogether from your speech and writing (try in particular to eradicate the use of it, and you will soon find the attempt futile).

We are suggesting that you closely monitor these pronouns to make sure they adhere to the three guidelines we have covered. In writing, always proofread carefully to make sure these three pronouns are used correctly and clearly.

Grammar Tip: Use This and That as Adjectives

Avoid using this and that as pronouns. Turn them into adjectives by following them immediately by a noun.

Converting This and That to Adjectives

Although using this and that as pronouns can be perfectly grammatical, you can avoid possible ambiguity by using them as adjectives instead. In this way, you do not have to worry about an antecedent at all because adjectives never require one.

Notice how these errors have been corrected by supplying a suitable noun (underlined twice) after this or that (underlined once):

X Joanna went to the park yesterday and played with her children. That was nice.

Joanna went to the park yesterday and played with her children. was nice.

X Carol told me apple juice is made from just the juice of apples, while apple cider is made from fermented apples. I already knew this.

Carol told me apple juice is made from just the juice of apples, while apple cider is made from fermented apples. I already knew

You can add more than just a noun after this or that, but there should still be a noun right after the pronoun, as seen here:

X A rock scraped the hood of my car and then hit the windshield. This ruined my day.

A rock scraped the hood of my car and then hit the windshield. of events ruined my day.

Our strategy depends on recognizing the difference between an adjective and a noun. (See Chapter 1 for more information on these parts of speech.)

Summary

• A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or pronoun.

• Some pronouns require an antecedent—a previous word that supplies the meaning of the pronoun.

• The antecedent must be a noun or pronoun.

• The antecedent should appear in the same sentence as its pronoun (or in the sentence immediately preceding the pronoun).

• Avoid separating a pronoun and an antecedent with any other noun or pronoun (unless this intervening noun or pronoun could not logically be the antecedent).

• The pronouns this, that, and it are frequently used vaguely.

• If you immediately follow this or that with a suitable noun, you transform these pronouns into adjectives, meaning you do not have to worry about antecedents.

Reflexive Pronouns: Problems with “-self” and “-selves” Words

The reflexive pronoun—or its name anyway—is a much less known type of pronoun. Reflexive pronouns are common and useful. They include the “-self” pronouns, such as myself, himself, and herself. In fact, all reflexive pronouns are formed by adding -self or -selves to a particular personal pronoun, as seen in the table a little later.

A reflexive pronoun is used to “bend back” (think of the words reflect or reflex). A true reflexive pronoun allows something to do something to itself, as shown in these examples:

In these examples, the same people who perform the acts are also the recipients of the acts. In other words, the same people both perform and receive the actions. The reflexive pronoun allows us to state such an idea clearly and concisely. Try, in fact, to reword either sentence without using a “-self” word. (In more technical terms, a major function of the reflexive pronoun is to indicate that the subject of a sentence and the direct object are the same person, place, or thing.)

You can also use a reflexive pronoun in other ways, as long as the word it refers to is in the same sentence, as seen in this example:

The pronoun is referring back to bird, so the sentence is correct. The bird is not really doing anything to itself, but the pronoun is correctly used as the object of the preposition for. Even if itself is not a direct object, the reflexive pronoun creates an effect similar to something doing something to itself.

Be aware that there is another major function of reflexive pronouns (the so-called emphatic function). This function complicates matters a bit, so first we focus on true reflexive pronouns—those that follow the definitions just given. We will return to the emphatic function later.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

What’s the Problem?

Three types of problems occur with reflexive pronouns:

1. Some people use words that might look like reflexive pronouns but actually are not acceptable words at all.

2. A true reflexive pronoun should normally have an antecedent in the same sentence. If not, there is likely an error.

3. It is incorrect to use a reflexive pronoun as the subject of a sentence.

Avoiding the Problem: Nonexistent Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns must take one of the forms listed in the table just given.

It is not unusual for people to think that other reflexive pronouns exist. However, there are no such words as hisself, theirselves, themself, or ourself. The first two are the most common mistakes made in this regard. In fact, we hear these “nonwords” so often that we might not even take notice, making it more likely we could commit these errors ourselves.

Thus, you simply have to memorize the correct forms. If nothing else, remember that himself and themselves are proper reflexive pronouns.

Avoiding the Problem: Reflexive Pronouns and Antecedents

Keep a reflexive pronoun and its antecedent in the same sentence.

As noted, a reflexive pronoun normally bends back to create the effect of something doing something to itself. There is a close relationship between the pronoun and the word to which it refers, and you should accordingly keep these close together in a physical sense. In short, a reflexive pronoun and its antecedent should normally be in the same sentence, with the pronoun coming second.

The word the pronoun refers to is called an antecedent. In this next example, the antecedent for the reflexive pronoun herself is chef. Without the antecedent, herself would be meaningless.

The chef surprised even herself with the delicious entree.

An error occurs in formal English when the antecedent does not precede the reflexive pronoun in the same sentence, as in these examples:

X The doctor gave a prescription to Juanita and myself.

X For John and myself, one slice of pie will be sufficient.

Yes, the sentences make sense. However, according to rules of formal English, the underlined pronouns are incorrectly used because neither has an antecedent in the same sentence (or maybe not even in whatever sentences came before). The simplest way to correct such errors is to use a personal pronoun instead of a reflexive pronoun. In these corrections, the personal pronouns are underlined:

The doctor gave a prescription to Juanita and me.
For John and me, one slice of pie will be sufficient.

Grammar Tip: Reflexive Pronouns Followed by And

When a reflexive pronoun is linked by and to another word, create a version of the sentence that uses only the reflexive pronoun. If the pronoun sounds odd in this new version, the original sentence probably contains an error.

As seen in our previous examples, errors involving reflexive pronouns are most likely to occur in a compound structure (when the pronoun is linked by and to a noun or another pronoun). For some reason, people will create errors in this sort of structure when they would never use the reflexive pronoun incorrectly if used alone.

Thus, our tip requires you to create a test sentence to see if you are using the reflexive pronoun needlessly. Here is an example of an error along with a test sentence:

Perhaps the original error would have escaped your notice, but not the one in the test sentence. Grammatically speaking, though, the two sentences have the same problem. If you would not use a reflexive pronoun in the test sentence, do not use it in the original. Following is a correct version. Notice, by the way, that you could apply a similar test to our rewrite.

Correction: On Friday, the lawyer contacted Barbara and me.

If you rewrote the test sentence by just using me, the sentence would sound fine. Thus, me is indeed correct.

You can use a reflexive pronoun in compound structures. Here is a correct example, along with a test sentence that shows the example is indeed correct:

Avoiding the Problem: Something That Reflexive Pronouns Cannot Do

Never use a reflexive pronoun as the subject of a sentence.

In truth, this third problem is usually just a specific version of the second error we just examined. However, this third problem is so common and serious it deserves its own treatment.

Also, we can be even briefer and clearer about the rule: you simply should never use a reflexive pronoun as the subject of a sentence. Following are sample errors. Note how they, like most others we have covered, appear in compound structures:

X Alicia and myself are going to the mall.
X George and herself went to the mall just yesterday.

These reflexive pronouns are errors for two reasons. First, a reflexive pronoun should not be the subject of a sentence. Second, nobody is doing anything to themselves, so a regular personal pronoun—not a reflexive pronoun—is what we need. If you want to be thorough in proving these two pronouns are incorrectly used, create two test sentences:

Needless to say, these test sentences sound ridiculous, but the original sentences are committing the same error by using the incorrect type of pronoun. To correct the errors, use personal pronouns to replace the reflexive pronouns:

Alicia and I are going to the mall.
George and she went to the mall just yesterday.

If you remember that reflexive pronouns should never be subjects of a sentence, then you do not even need to apply the tip. In the original errors, myself and herself are subjects, making them erroneous. The fact that they are part of a compound subject (joined by and to a noun) does not change the rule: you still cannot use reflexive pronouns as grammatical subjects of a sentence.

Reflexive Pronouns and Emphasis

It would be nice to stop at this point, but the truth is reflexive pronouns have one other function: to provide emphasis. In these next correct examples, the underlined pronouns are not involved at all in “something doing something to itself.” Their sole purpose is to add emphasis—to intensify a previous noun or pronoun.

I myself talked to the CEO.

Elvis himself would be proud of your singing.

It is important to understand that these pronouns do have an antecedent in the same sentence. Thus, these sentences adhere to the rule requiring the reflexive pronoun to have an antecedent in the same sentence. Their function changes, but the pronouns still must adhere to certain rules for reflexive pronouns.

This next sentence is not breaking the rule prohibiting a reflexive pronoun (underlined) from serving as a subject:

Ulysses S. Grant himself was fined for speeding while he was president, though he was driving a horse and buggy.

Ulysses S. Grant is the subject of the sentence. The pronoun himself is merely intensifying the subject as a participant in an action. There is not a compound subject (in fact, if you put and between Grant and himself, the sentence will not make sense).

The major difference between these emphatic (or intensive) pronouns and those reflexive pronouns covered earlier is this: the emphatic pronouns do not involve something doing something to itself. True reflexive pronouns are essential parts of the sentence, but the three examples immediately preceding are just adding a little “gravy”—a bit of emphasis to an existing idea.

Some grammar handbooks will even separate reflexive pronouns from emphatic pronouns. That is, some people see these as two different categories of pronouns, even if they look exactly the same and have some similarities.

Grammar Tip: Deleting the Emphatic Pronoun

A true reflexive pronoun cannot be deleted. However, the emphatic version can always be deleted; the result will always be a grammatical sentence that means exactly the same thing as the original.

Notice how we can take out myself and himself in the following correct examples. The result is a completely grammatical sentence that means exactly the same thing as the original.

I myself talked to the CEO. (Emphatic myself.)
I talked to the CEO.

Elvis himself would be proud of your singing. (Emphatic himself.)
Elvis would be proud of your singing.

In short, we can prove that these are emphatic variations of reflexive pronouns. Deleting a true reflexive pronoun will change meaning significantly and almost always result in an ungrammatical sentence, as seen in this next instance:

The office manager hurt himself with a stapler. (Reflexive himself.)

X The office manager hurt with a stapler. (This is ungrammatical because the reflexive pronoun is missing.)

This emphatic variation of the reflexive pronoun might seem confusing, but you can use these pronouns appropriately if you follow the same rules noted earlier. In particular, remember that the antecedent should appear in the same sentence as the pronoun—no matter if it is a true reflexive pronoun or the emphatic variation.

One final suggestion: avoid overusing this emphatic version of reflexive pronouns. Although overuse does not result in a true grammatical error, readers expect you to use emphatic pronouns only when it is worth emphasizing somebody or something. Some people are especially prone to using myself to needlessly call attention to themselves in a sentence.

Summary

• All reflexive pronouns are formed by adding -self or -selves to personal pronouns. Common reflexive pronouns include myself, ourselves, and itself.

• True reflexive pronouns involve the notion of something doing something to itself.

• In formal English, there are no such words as hisself or theirselves. Use himself and themselves.

• A reflexive pronoun should have an antecedent. The antecedent is the word that the pronoun refers to.

• The antecedent and reflexive pronoun should appear in the same sentence.

• Do not use a reflexive pronoun as the subject of a sentence.

• Most errors involving reflexive pronouns occur when the pronoun is connected by and to another word. Monitor such structures carefully to see if perhaps you should use a personal pronoun, not a reflexive pronoun.

• The “-self” and “-selves” pronouns can also be used to emphasize or intensify the antecedent. Such pronouns still must have antecedents in the same sentence.

Pronoun Agreement Errors

As noted in the earlier sections, some pronouns can (or must) have an antecedent—a previous word that gives meaning to the pronoun. Here, for instance, the pronoun he makes sense only if we connect it to the antecedent lookout:

Although there are different types of pronouns, all must adhere to certain rules. One is that a pronoun and its antecedent must match up in a logical sense. For instance, using they rather than he in the preceding sentence would be illogical. The antecedent (lookout) refers to one person, so the corresponding pronoun must also refer to just one person. This concept of logically matching the pronoun with its antecedent is referred to as agreement. The pronoun and antecedent must grammatically “agree” on basic matters such as the number of people involved and their gender.

(The notion of agreement is also used to describe logical connections between subjects and their verbs. See Chapter 7 for more information on subject-verb agreement.)

What’s the Problem?

A pronoun agreement error occurs when a pronoun and its antecedent do not agree. Often such problems are harmless, especially in casual speech. At other times, a mismatch between pronoun and antecedent can confuse people because the mismatch causes them—consciously or subconsciously—to look elsewhere for the antecedent of the pronoun. Even if there is no confusion, many readers become annoyed by the lack of a logical connection between two ideas that are supposedly the same.

To help you avoid these problems, we will consider three strategies: (1) understanding the basic rule, (2) identifying certain pronouns—certain indefinite pronouns—that are often connected with agreement errors, and (3) correcting agreement errors while also avoiding sexist language.

Avoiding the Problem: Basic Advice

Make sure a pronoun and its antecedent agree in terms of number and gender.

More on the Basic Rule

Pronoun agreement, as stated, means that a pronoun and its antecedent should match up in a logical way. The two most common areas of needed agreement are number and gender:

• Number agreement requires both the antecedent and the pronoun to be singular or both to be plural.

• Gender agreement requires both the antecedent and the pronoun to be female or both to be male, or a “genderless” pronoun is to be used appropriately to refer to either males or females.

In the next three examples, all pronouns are in agreement in terms of number and gender (pronouns underlined once, antecedents underlined twice):

Early were cumbersome. Some required a foot pedal to return the carriage. (Both typewriters and some are plural and genderless.)

In 1867 built the first typewriter that was considered practical. He later signed a contract with gunsmiths E. Remington and Sons to manufacture his machine. (Christopher Sholes, he, and his are all singular and male.)

I learned these facts from my collect typewriters. (The nouns grandfather and sister are used together as a plural subject; they is plural. The genderless they can refer to either male or female.)

Checking your pronouns and antecedents in this fashion (in terms of number and gender) can help you avoid most pronoun agreement errors.

In this next example, what appears to be the antecedent does not agree with the pronoun they:

X I need to speak with the head supervisor; they never seem to help, however.

Your first step is to determine what they refers to (that is, find the antecedent). The writer might have something else in mind, but the only possible choice in the sentence we are given is head supervisor. The pronoun they must always have an antecedent, and I is certainly not it. However, they is plural, while head supervisor is singular. Thus, there is a pronoun agreement error involving number.

The error can be corrected in many ways. One approach is to change the number of either the antecedent or pronoun. Another approach is to reword the sentence so there is no pronoun or antecedent at all. Here are both correction approaches applied to the preceding error:

I need to speak with one of our never seem to help, however. (Both head supervisors and they are plural and genderless.)

I need to speak with the head supervisor; this approach has never seemed to help, however. (The pronoun they has been deleted.)

Avoiding the Problem: The Specific Case of Indefinite Pronouns

Several indefinite pronouns might seem plural, but grammatically they are singular.

More on Indefinite Pronouns

Undoubtedly, one of the greatest sources of agreement errors arises with a handful of pronouns that belong to a category called indefinite pronouns. Any indefinite pronoun is general enough that it can be used to refer to various things, people, or places (hence the name indefinite). Here are examples of these pronouns:

Common Indefinite Pronouns

Following are two correct examples of an indefinite pronoun agreeing with its antecedent. This first example uses an indefinite pronoun (underlined twice) as the antecedent for a later pronoun (underlined once):

The next sentence uses the indefinite pronoun (underlined once) serving as the “major pronoun,” with a previous noun (underlined twice) as the antecedent:

Errors involving indefinite pronouns rarely deal with gender. However, these pronouns are involved in a large proportion of agreement errors involving number. The problem is that a few indefinite pronouns are always plural (such as both and many), some are always singular (such as one and each), and still others can be singular or plural (such as some and most) depending on how they are used in a particular sentence. Thus, memorizing every indefinite pronoun in terms of which is singular or plural is unappealing, perhaps impossible, because some can go either way depending on whether the antecedent is singular or plural.

The first strategy we suggested earlier will help you again: look carefully at the pronoun to make sure it agrees with the antecedent. However, our second strategy suggests you consider more carefully this particular type of pronoun.

Even more specifically, you should understand there are some indefinite pronouns that are most likely to be involved in agreement errors involving number. These pronouns are always singular, no matter how plural they might appear to you at first. This list is manageable and worth remembering. Another characteristic (one that makes it easier to memorize the list) is that these pronouns are formed by mixing and matching certain root words, as shown here:

The problem is that these words certainly seem to be referring to more than one person or thing. Nonetheless, grammatically they are singular, as the following tip proves:

Grammar Tip: The Are Test for Plurals

To help determine if an indefinite pronoun can be plural, see if you can put the verb are right after it. If the combination seems odd, then the pronoun is always singular.

Does “everybody are” or “someone are” sound odd? Yes, so the pronouns everybody and someone are never plural. This test confirms that everybody and someone do not agree with their plural counterparts in these erroneous sentences:

Avoiding the Problem: Avoiding Sexist Pronouns and Agreement Errors

Do not create an agreement error in the attempt to avoid sexist language. Do not use a masculine pronoun such as he to refer to both men and women. But neither should you create an agreement error in terms of number.

Sexist Language Versus Pronoun Agreement

To avoid appearing sexist, some people would prefer to commit a pronoun agreement error rather than indicate, say, that they believe only males or females are motivated (see the last example given). At one time, most people considered it acceptable to use the masculine pronoun he, his, or him to refer generically to anyone (male or female). However, such language is now rightfully considered sexist or demeaning.

The genderless they indeed allows people to avoid sexist language, but there is no reason to create a new problem by avoiding another. Indefinite pronouns are also frequently involved in this sort of dilemma, as seen in this example:

Assume the sentence is supposed to refer to both males and females. It would have been sexist to use his, but the sentence contains an agreement error because the indefinite pronoun nobody is always singular, while their is always plural.

Other types of antecedents can be involved in problems of sexist language versus number agreement. In this next example, the singular noun dance instructor is the antecedent for the singular personal pronoun her:

X A should always care about her students.

Although the antecedent and pronoun agree in terms of number (both are singular), using her incorrectly indicates only females can be dance instructors. However, changing her to a genderless their would be incorrect as well, because then we would be again facing an agreement problem involving number. Again, do not correct one error by creating another.

Grammar Tip: Plurals to Avoid Sexist Language and Agreement Errors

Using pronouns and their antecedents in the plural form will usually help you avoid agreement errors as well as sexist language. This tip will allow you to use the genderless they, them, and their to refer to men and women alike.

Applying This Tip

If we change pronouns and antecedents to the plural form in the preceding errors, we can correctly use their and they. These are genderless, so you can use them to refer to both men and women (just be sure the antecedents are plural). As seen in the following, you might need to make a few other minor revisions (remember subject-verb agreement) as well:

Summary

• A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. An antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers.

• A pronoun should agree with its antecedent. They should agree in terms of gender and in terms of how many persons or things are involved.

• Indefinite pronouns are frequently involved in agreement errors involving number. Some indefinite pronouns are always plural, some are always singular, and some can be either depending on whether the antecedent is singular or plural.

• Some indefinite pronouns—such as everyone, everything, somebody, and anyone—are especially likely to be involved in agreement errors because they seem to be plural but actually are singular.

• Confirm whether an indefinite pronoun can be plural by seeing if you can put are right afterward. If it sounds odd (such as everybody are), then the pronoun is always singular, and its antecedent should also be singular.

• Avoid creating an agreement error when attempting to avoid sexist language. By using a plural pronoun such as they, them, or their along with a plural antecedent, you can avoid both problems.