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CONTENTS

    Preface

    Acknowledgments

    Introduction: The 5-Step Program

STEP 1 Set Up Your Study Program

   1 What You Need to Know About the AP World History Exam

    Background Information

    Reasons for Taking the Advanced Placement Exam

    What You Need to Know About the AP World History Exam

   2 How to Plan Your Time

    Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP World History Exam

    Calendar for Each Plan

STEP 2 Determine Your Test Readiness

   3 Take a Diagnostic Exam

    AP World History Diagnostic Test

STEP 3 Develop Strategies for Success

   4 Tips for Taking the Exam

    Multiple-Choice Question

    The Short-Answer Questions

    Document-Based Question

    Long Essay Question

STEP 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High

   Period 1 Technological and Environmental Transformations (to c. 600 BCE)

   5 The World History Environment and Periodization

   6 Development of Agriculture and Technology

   7 Structure of Early Civilizations

    Period 1 Summary

    Timeline

    Key Comparisons

    Change/Continuity Chart

   Period 2 Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies (c. 600 BCE to c. 600 CE)

   8 Rise of Classical Civilizations

   9 Origins of World Belief Systems

   10 Interactions in the Late Classical Period

    Period 2 Summary

    Timeline

    Key Comparisons

    Change/Continuity Chart

   Period 3 Regional and Transregional Interactions (c. 600 CE to c. 1450)

   11 Rise and Spread of Islam

   12 Expansion of China

   13 Changes in European Institutions

   14 Interregional Trade and Exchange

   15 Empires in the Americas

    Period 3 Summary

    Timeline

    Key Comparisons

    Change/Continuity Chart

   Period 4 Global Interactions (c. 1450 to c. 1750)

   16 Empires and Other Political Systems

   17 Hemispheric Exchange

   18 Systems of Slavery

   19 Cultural and Intellectual Changes

    Period 4 Summary

    Timeline

    Key Comparisons

    Change/Continuity Chart

   Period 5 Industrialization and Global Integration (c. 1750 to c. 1900)

   20 Industrial Revolution and Social Changes

   21 Demographic and Environmental Developments

   22 World Trade

   23 Political Revolutions

   24 Western Imperialism

    Period 5 Summary

    Timeline

    Key Comparisons

    Change/Continuity Chart

   Period 6 Accelerating Global Change and Realignments (c. 1900 to the present)

   25 Revolution, World Wars, and Depression

   26 Cold War and the Postwar Balance of Power

   27 End of the Cold War and Nationalist Movements

   28 Global Trade

   29 Technological Developments

   30 Social Changes

   31 Demographic and Environmental Developments

    Period 6 Summary

    Timeline

    Key Comparisons

    Change/Continuity Chart

STEP 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

   Practice Test

   Glossary

   Bibliography

   Websites

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

PEGGY J. MARTIN teaches Advanced Placement World History, Economics-Free Enterprise, and U.S. Government at Del Rio High School in Del Rio, Texas. She is the author of Kaplan’s SAT Subject Test: World History and 5 Steps to a 5: AP World History Flashcards for Your iPod with MP3 Disk . As a consultant in Advanced Placement World History, she has presented workshops in the southwestern region of the United States and served as an essay reader for the Advanced Placement World History Exam since the inaugural reading in 2002. The mother of four grown children, she and her husband make their home in Del Rio, Texas.

BETH BARTOLINI -SALIMBENI holds degrees in history, Spanish, Italian, and comparative literature. A former Fulbright scholar and twice a National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) fellow, she has taught AP World History, AP European History, and AP Art History at the high school level as well as history and languages at both the high school and the university level, both in the United States and in Italy. Her most recent book is Italian Grammar for Dummies . She is currently working on a biography of a 19th-century Italian “gentlewoman.” In 2014–2015, she was the recipient of the American Association of Italian Teachers Distinguished Service Award (K–12) and the New Mexico Organization of Language Educators Lifetime Achievement Award for her work in Romance languages and cultures. She is an endorsed consultant to the College Board.

WENDY PETERSEN earned undergraduate degrees in political science and French before going on to a Master of Arts in political science. Time spent studying in France and England sparked her interest in history, and she began her career teaching world history in southwest Houston in 1997. Since moving to New Mexico in 2000, she has taught a variety of subjects, including French, AP World History, and AP United States Government and Politics. In 2014, she was selected as one of the first teachers to pilot the new Advanced Placement Seminar course, part of the College Board’s Advanced Placement Capstone program.

PREFACE

Welcome to the adventure of Advanced Placement (AP) World History! Enjoy the challenges of your studies. During the course of the year, you should be prepared to read widely in both your text and readers. Expect to analyze all sorts of primary documents, from text to political cartoons, photographs, paintings, maps, and charts; analytical skills are essential to success on both the multiple-choice questions and the essay questions. You will write essay after essay as you not only analyze primary documents but also compare issues and analyze continuity and change over periods of time. Along the way, enjoy the fascinating story of humankind and find a little of yourself among the peoples of other societies.

This study guide will ease your passage through the challenges of AP World History to success on the AP examination. At first sight, the amount of material in the AP World History course can appear a bit overwhelming. The goal of this manual is to present the content material and test-taking skills so that you can approach the AP exam with confidence. As a first step, turn now to the Introduction to learn about the 5-step study program and how it can help you to organize your preparation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my husband, Gary, and our children Sarah, Keren, Abigail, and Jonathan and their families for their loving encouragement throughout the course of this project. Also, I would like to express my appreciation to my editors, Grace Freedson and Del Franz, for their guidance during the preparation of the manuscript.

Special thanks go to our son, Dr. Jonathan S. Martin, for his comments and suggestions for the manuscript.

—Peggy J. Martin

INTRODUCTION: THE 5-STEP PROGRAM

Introducing the 5-Step Preparation Program

This book is organized as a 5-step program to prepare you for success on the exam. These steps are designed to provide you with vital skills and strategies and the practice that can lead you to that perfect 5. Here are the 5 steps.

Step 1: Set Up Your Study Program

In this step you’ll read a brief overview of the AP World History exam, including an outline of topics and the approximate percentage of the exam that will test knowledge of each topic. You’ll learn:

• Background information about the AP exam

• Reasons for taking the exam

• What to bring to the exam

• Other tips to prepare you for the exam

• How to choose the preparation plan that’s right for you

• Calendars for three suggested plans

Step 2: Determine Your Test Readiness

In this step you’ll take a diagnostic exam in AP World History. This pretest should give you an idea of how prepared you are before beginning your study program.

• Go through the diagnostic exam step-by-step and question-by-question to build your confidence level.

• Review the correct answers and explanations so that you see what you do and do not yet fully understand.

Step 3: Develop Strategies for Success

In this step you’ll learn strategies that will help you do your best on the exam. These strategies cover all four question types: multiple choice, document-based, continuity and change- over-time, and comparative. This part of your preparation program will help you to learn:

• How to read multiple-choice questions

• How to answer multiple-choice questions, including whether or not to guess

• How to analyze primary documents, including texts, photographs, political cartoons, maps, and charts

• How to write essays for the document-based and free-response questions.

• How to respond to the short-answer questions.

Included are some commonly asked questions as well as advice taken from my experience as a reader of the AP World History exam.

Step 4: Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High

In this step you’ll learn or review the material you need to know for the test. This review section takes up the bulk of this book. It contains not only summaries of key events and concepts, but also vocabulary lists and review questions. The material is organized according to the time periods in the AP World History course. Each unit in this review section is followed by a timeline, a list of key comparisons, and a change/continuity chart. The chart will show you at a glance key events and issues in the major world regions. It will also refresh your memory of changes and continuities within each region during the time period covered by the unit.

As you review this material, it may be helpful to work with others. Find a study pal or form a small study group, and set a time when you can get together to review.

Step 5: Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

In this step you’ll complete your preparation by testing yourself on a full-length practice exam modeled after the actual examination. The test is followed by a discussion of the answers. Be aware that this practice exam is not simply a reproduction of questions from actual AP exams, but it mirrors both the material tested and the way in which it is tested.

• Try the strategies provided in Chapter 4 of this book for each type of question on the test.

• For the document-based, comparative, and continuity and change-over-time essays, have another student read and critique your essays.

• Take the time not only to check whether or not your answers are correct, but also to read the explanation for the correct answers. By doing this, you will review a broad body of concepts in a shorter period of time.

Finally, at the back of this book you’ll find additional resources to aid your preparation. These include:

• Glossary of terms

• Bibliography for further reading

• List of websites related to the AP World History exam

The Graphics Used in This Book

To emphasize particular concepts and strategies, we use several icons throughout this book. An icon in the margin will alert you that you should pay particular attention to the accompanying text. We use these three icons:

The first icon points out a very important concept or fact that you should not pass over.

The second icon calls your attention to a strategy that you may want to try.

The third icon indicates a tip that you might find useful.

What You Need to Know About the AP World History Exam

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Learn background information on the AP program and exam, how exams are graded, what types of questions are asked, what topics are tested, and basic test-taking information.

Key Ideas

Many colleges and universities will give you credit for exam scores of 3 or above.

Multiple-choice questions reflect the amount of course time spent on each of the five AP World History periods.

The three types of free-response questions are based on the broad course themes.

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Background Information

What Is the Advanced Placement Program?

The Advanced Placement (AP) program was begun by the College Board in 1955 to construct standard achievement exams that would allow highly motivated high school students the opportunity to be awarded advanced placement as freshmen in colleges and universities in the United States. Today, there are more than 30 courses and exams with nearly two million students taking the annual exams in May.

There are numerous AP courses in the social studies besides World History, including U.S. History, European History, U.S. Government, Comparative Government, Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, and Psychology. The majority of students who take AP tests are juniors and seniors; however, some schools offer AP courses to freshmen and sophomores, especially in World History.

Who Writes the AP World History Exam? Who Corrects the Exams?

Like all AP exams, the World History exam is written by college and high school instructors of world history. This group is called the AP World History Test Development Committee. The Committee constantly evaluates the test, analyzing the test as a whole and on an item-by-item basis. All questions on the World History exam are field-tested before they actually appear on an AP exam.

A much larger group of college and secondary teachers meets at a central location in early June to correct the exams that were completed by students the previous month. The scoring procedure of each grader (or “reader”) during this session is carefully analyzed to ensure that exams are being evaluated on a fair and consistent basis.

How Are Exams Graded?

Sometime in July the grade you receive on your AP exam is reported. You, your high school, and the colleges you listed on your initial application will receive the scores.

There are five possible scores that you may receive on your exam:

• 5 indicates that you are extremely well qualified. This is the highest possible grade.

• 4 indicates that you are well qualified.

• 3 indicates that you are qualified.

• 2 indicates that you are possibly qualified.

• 1 indicates that you are not qualified to receive college credit.

Individual colleges and universities differ in their acceptance of AP exam scores. Most will not consider a score below a 3 on any AP exam. Many highly competitive colleges and universities honor only scores of 5 on AP exams.

Reasons for Taking the Advanced Placement Exam

There are several very practical reasons for enrolling in an AP World History course and taking the AP World History exam in May. In the first place, during the application process colleges look very favorably on students who have challenged themselves by taking Advanced Placement courses. Although few would recommend this, it is possible to take any AP exam without taking a preparatory course for that exam.

Most important, most colleges will reward you for doing well on your AP exams. Although the goal of this manual is to help you achieve a 5, if you get a 3 or better on your AP World History exam, many colleges will either give you actual credit for a required introductory World History course or allow you to receive elective credit. You should definitely check beforehand with the colleges you are interested in to find out their policy on AP scores and credit; they will vary.

Taking a year of AP World History (or any AP) course will be a very exacting and challenging experience. If you have the capabilities, allow yourself to be challenged! Many students feel a great personal satisfaction after completing an AP course, regardless of the scores they eventually receive on the actual exam.

What You Need to Know About the AP World History Exam

The AP World History exam consists of both multiple-choice and essay questions. The multiple-choice portion is worth 50 percent of the total exam grade, whereas the three essays together count equally for the other 50 percent. Your score on the multiple-choice section is based on the number of questions you answer correctly. There is no “guessing penalty.” No points will be deducted for incorrect answers; unanswered questions will be graded as incorrect answers.

Format of the Exam

The following table summarizes the format of the AP World History exam.

Multiple-Choice Questions

This section consists of 55 questions. Each question has four possible answers. The questions are arranged in sets of two to four questions per set. Each set begins with a written or visual stimulus. It is recommended that you use 55 minutes of the total 105 minutes you are given for Section I of the exam.

The College Board annually publishes material on the breakdown of questions on the multiple-choice test. According to their most recently published information, the multiple-choice section is broken down as follows:

Periodization:

• 5 percent of the questions deal with the period to c. 600 BCE.

• 15 percent of the questions deal with the period c. 600 BCE to c. 600 CE.

• 20 percent of the questions deal with the period c. 600 CE to c. 1450.

• 20 percent of the questions deal with the period c. 1450 to c. 1750.

• 20 percent of the questions deal with the period c. 1750 to c. 1900.

• 20 percent of the questions deal with the period c. 1900 to the present.

The information provided above is extremely valuable as you prepare for the multiple-choice section of the test. As you study, you should obviously concentrate your efforts on the periods since 600 CE.

Short-Answer Questions

The AP exam contains four short-answer questions. Each question will have parts A and B, and some questions will also contain a part C. All questions, regardless of the number of parts, are worth the same number of points. At least two of the four questions will contain historical texts, maps, drawings, photos, charts, or some other historical item that you must interpret and evaluate. It is recommended that you use 50 minutes of the 105 total minutes you are given for Section I to work on your responses to the short-answer questions.

Essay Questions

During the remaining 90 minutes of the test you will be asked to write two essays: a document-based essay question (DBQ) and a long essay question. The essays will be based on the broad themes that form the background of the AP World History course. According to the College Board description of the AP World History course, these themes include:

• Human-environmental interaction

• Disease and its effects on population

• Migration

• Settlement patterns

• Technology

• Cultural development and interaction

• Religions, belief systems, and philosophies

• Science and technology

• The arts and architecture

• State-building, expansion, and conflict

• Political structures and forms of government

• Empires

• Nations and nationalism

• Revolts and revolutions

• Regional, transregional, and global organizations and structures

• Creation, growth, and interaction of economic systems

• Agriculture and pastoralism

• Trade and commerce

• Labor systems

• Industrialization

• Capitalism and socialism

• Development and change of social structures

• Gender roles

• Family and kinship relations

• Race and ethnicity

• Social and economic class structures

Also essential to success on the essays is the ability to visualize global patterns and the reactions of societies to global processes. The ability to interpret the context of a document, as well as to analyze point of view, is necessary to compose a satisfactory response to the DBQ.

For further information on the multiple-choice and essay questions, refer to Step 3 of this manual.

Taking the Exam

When you arrive at the exam site, you should have brought the following:

• Several pencils for the multiple-choice questions.

• Several black or blue pens for the essays.

• A watch. Silence any alarms that would go off during the exam period.

• Tissues.

• Your school code.

• Your driver’s license and Social Security Number.

Leave the following items at home:

• A cell phone, beeper, PDA, walkie-talkie, or calculator.

• Books, a dictionary, study notes, flash cards, highlighters, correction fluid, a ruler, or any other office supplies.

• Portable music of any kind; no MP3 players, iPods, or CD players are allowed.

Other recommendations:

• Don’t study the night before. Arrive at the exam rested.

• Wear comfortable clothing. It’s a good idea to layer your clothing so that you are prepared for a variety of temperatures in the exam room.

• Eat a light breakfast and a light lunch on the day of the exam.

How to Plan Your Time

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The right preparation plan for you depends on your study habits and the amount of time you have before the test.

Key Idea

Choose the study plan that’s right for you.

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Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP World History Exam

What kind of preparation program for the AP exam should you follow? Should you carefully follow every step, or are there perhaps some steps you can bypass? That depends not only on how much time you have, but also on what kind of student you are. No one knows your study habits, likes, and dislikes better than you. So you are the only one who can decide which approach you want and/or need to adapt. This chapter presents three possible study plans, labeled A, B, and C. Look at the brief profiles below. These may help you determine which of these three plans is right for you.

You’re a full-school-year prep student if:

1. You have a definite love of world history.

2. You are certain that history will be your major in college.

3. You are not a procrastinator; you like to get things done.

4. You like detailed planning and everything in its place.

5. You feel you must be thoroughly prepared.

6. You have been successful with this approach in the past.

If you fit this profile, consider Plan A .

You’re a one-semester prep student if:

1. You are pretty interested in world history.

2. You usually plan ahead but sometimes skip some of the little details.

3. You feel more comfortable when you know what to expect, but a surprise or two does not floor you.

4. You’re always on time for appointments.

5. You have been successful with this approach in the past.

If you fit this profile, consider Plan B .

You’re a four-to-six-week prep student if:

1. World history is somewhat interesting to you.

2. You work best under pressure and close deadlines.

3. You think the work you have done in your world history class has prepared you fairly well for the AP test.

4. You decided late in the year to take the exam.

5. You like surprises.

6. You have been successful with this approach in the past.

If you fit this profile, consider Plan C .

Look now at the following calendars for plans A, B, and C. Choose the plan that will best suit your particular learning style and timeline. For best results, choose a plan and stick with it.

Calendar for Each Plan

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Plan A: You Have a Full School Year to Prepare

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September–October
(Check off the activities as you complete them.)

— Determine into which student mode you would place yourself.

— Read Step 1 of this manual.

— Take a look at the Diagnostic Test in Step 2 to get an idea of the expectations of the AP exam.

— Become acquainted with the College Board AP website.

— Read and study the sections for Periods 1 and 2 in this manual.

— Begin to do outside reading on world history topics.

— Begin to use this book as a resource.

November

— Read the section of Chapter 4 on strategies for the continuity and change-over-time essay.

— Write a continuity and change-over-time essay as part of the Diagnostic Test.

— Read and study the world history review sections that correspond with the period(s) you are studying in class.

December

— Study the world history review sections in the manual for the areas you have already studied in class. Note the connections of trade, exchange, and migration among world societies.

— Read additional sources to supplement the material in your textbook. Consult the bibliography of this manual for suggested titles.

January

— Form a study group to prepare for the AP exam.

— Continue critical reading of material to supplement your textbook.

— Study the world history review sections for material you are currently covering in class.

February–March

— Read the section of Chapter 4 of this manual on the comparative essay.

— Write the comparative essay from the Diagnostic Test.

— Read the section of Chapter 4 of the manual on the document-based essay question.

— Write the DBQ (document-based essay question) from the Diagnostic Test.

— Continue reviewing content from the world history review chapters.

— Read the section of Chapter 4 on the multiple-choice section.

— Answer the multiple-choice questions in the Diagnostic Test.

April

— Take the practice test in the first week of April.

— Evaluate your strengths and weaknesses.

— Study appropriate chapters to correct weaknesses.

— Study the Period Summary for each period in this manual to review key comparisons and changes and continuities.

— Within your study group, construct your own comparative and continuity and change-over-time charts for each unit.

May —First Two Weeks (You’re almost there!)

— Make a list of materials that you are unsure of, and ask your teacher or study group to explain them.

— Review the practice test.

— Evaluate your performance.

— On the day before the test, put away your books, do something fun, and get a good night’s rest.

— Walk into the examination room with confidence; you’re ready!

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Plan B: You Have One Semester to Prepare

---

January–February

— Carefully read Chapters 1 , 2 , and 4 of this manual.

— Take the Diagnostic Test.

— Read and study the world history review sections that pertain to material that you have covered in class.

— Read at least one source outside of class on a topic you are studying.

March

— Review the world history content sections that cover the material you have studied in class.

— Form a study group.

— In your study group, practice writing and answering comparative and continuity and change-over-time questions.

April

— Take the practice test in the first week of April.

— Evaluate your strengths and weaknesses.

— Study appropriate chapters to correct weaknesses.

— Review the Period Summary after each period in this manual to review key comparisons and changes and continuities.

— In your study group, create your own comparative and continuity and change-over-time charts.

May —First Two Weeks (You’re almost there!)

— Ask your teacher to clarify things in your textbook or in this manual of which you are unsure.

— Review the historical material for as much of the year as you can.

— Review the practice test.

— Score your answers and analyze what you did wrong.

— On the day before the test, put away the books, do something fun, and get a good night’s rest.

— Walk into the testing room with confidence; you’re ready!

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Plan C: You Have Four to Six Weeks to Prepare

---

April

— Read Chapters 1 , 2 , and 4 of this manual.

— Take the Diagnostic Test.

— Review your strengths and weaknesses.

— Read the world history review chapters in this manual.

— Score your exam and analyze your errors.

— Develop a weekly study group.

— Skim the glossary.

May —First Two Weeks (You’re almost there!)

— Complete the practice test.

— Score your exam and analyze your errors.

— Review the world history review section of this manual.

— Review Chapter 4 on strategies for each question type if necessary.

— On the day before the test, put away the books, do something fun, and get a good night’s rest.

— Take the AP exam with confidence; you’re ready!

Take a Diagnostic Exam

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: In the following pages you will find a diagnostic exam that is modeled after the actual AP exam. It is intended to give you an idea of your level of preparation in world history. After you have completed both the multiple-choice and the essay questions, check your multiple-choice answers against the given answers and read over the comments to the possible solutions to the free-response questions.

Key Ideas

Practice the kind of multiple-choice and free-response questions you will be asked on the real exam.

Answer questions that approximate the coverage of periods and themes on the real exam.

Check your work against the given answers and the possible solutions to the free-response questions.

Determine your areas of strength and weakness.

Earmark the concepts to which you must give special attention.

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WORLD HISTORY DIAGNOSTIC TEST

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Answer Sheet

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AP WORLD HISTORY DIAGNOSTIC TEST

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Section I

Time: 1 hour, 45 minutes

PART A: MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Recommended Time for Part A: 55 Minutes

Directions: Each of the questions below is followed by four answer choices. Select the answer choice that best answers the question and fill in your choice on the answer sheet supplied.

Questions 1 to 3 refer to the image below, a frieze of a Buddhist couple around a stupa with Corinthian columns on either side, India, c. 1st century CE.

1 . What historical process is best illustrated by this frieze?

  (A) The diffusion of cultural ideas and patterns through military conquest

  (B) The significance of trade in the weakening of class systems

  (C) The use of monumental architecture to strengthen political support

  (D) The spread of religion as a result of trade

2 . The combination of Greek culture and eastern political forms shown in this frieze is illustrative of which of the following periods?

  (A) Punic

  (B) Justinian

  (C) Constantinian

  (D) Hellenistic

3 . The adoption of conquered people’s ideas, institutions, and traditions by ruling groups is best characterized by which of the following rulers?

  (A) Mohandas Gandhi

  (B) Caesar Augustus

  (C) Alexander the Great

  (D) Chinggis Khan

Questions 4 to 7 refer to the passages below.

At the peak of their power, the domains of the Mongol khans, or rulers, made up a vast realm in which once-hostile peoples lived together in peace and virtually all religions were tolerated. . . . The law code first promulgated by Chinggis Khan ordered human interaction. The result was an important new stage in international contact. From eastern Europe to southern China, merchants and travelers could move across the well-policed Mongol domains without fear for their lives or property. The great swath of Mongol territory that covered or connected most of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East served as a bridge between the civilizations of the Eastern Hemisphere. The caravans and embassies that crossed the Mongol lands transmitted new food, inventions, and ideas from one civilized pool to others and from civilized pools to the nomadic peoples who served as intermediaries. Secure trade routes made for prosperous merchants and wealthy, cosmopolitan cities. They also facilitated the spread of foods [and] inventions . . . a major force for economic and social development and the enhancement of civilized life.

—Robert Guisepi, 1992

4 . The legacies or adaptations of legacies from the Mongol empire are varied. Most notably, they include which of the following selections?

  (A) Public libraries

  (B) Universal health care

  (C) The game of chess

  (D) Religious tolerance

5 . The Mongol empire used which of the following to integrate its vast, geographically diverse area?

  (A) Emphasis on trade networks

  (B) Expansion of bureaucracy to reinforce dominance

  (C) The use of state-sponsored religion to legitimize the government

  (D) Expansion of an interregional canal system

6 . Which of the following was a long-term consequence of the Mongol conquest of Russia in the 1200s?

  (A) Russia was excluded from Western European developments (like the Renaissance).

  (B) Russia benefited by becoming the administrative center of Mongol political activity.

  (C) Islam became the dominant religion of Russia.

  (D) Russia developed a centralized bureaucracy.

7 . Which statement most accurately compares the Mongol (post-classical) empire with the Persian (classical) empire?

  (A) Both the Mongols and the Persians allowed conquered peoples to maintain their local traditions and cultures.

  (B) The Mongols invested in building large-scale monuments, whereas the Persians focused on public works.

  (C) Both the Persians and the Mongols improved the social, economic, and legal status of women.

  (D) The Mongols created a new syncretic belief system, but the Persians maintained a traditional monotheistic religion.

Questions 8 to 11 refer to the following passage.

Yi Yin sacrificed to the former king, and presented the heir-king reverently before the shrine of his grandfather. . . . Yi Yin then clearly described the virtue of the Meritorious Ancestor for the instruction of the young king.

  “Oh! of old the former kings of Xia cultivated earnestly their virtue, and then there were no calamities from Heaven. The spirits of the hills and rivers were all in tranquility; and the birds and beasts enjoyed their existence according to their nature. But their descendant did not follow their example, and Heaven sent down calamities, using our ruler, who possessed of its favor. The attack on Xia may be traced to the orgies in Ming Tiao. . . . Our king of Shang brilliantly displayed his sagely prowess; for oppression he substituted his generous gentleness. Now your Majesty is entering on the inheritance of his virtue; all depends on how you commence your reign.

  “Oh! the former king began with careful attention to the bonds that hold men together. . . . Revere these warnings in your person. . . . The ways of Heaven are not invariable: on the good-doer it sends down all blessings, and on the evil-doer it sends down all miseries. If you not be virtuous, be it in large things or in small, it will bring the ruin of your ancestral temple.”

—Excerpted and adapted from the Shu Jing, 6th century BCE, China

8 . Which of the following best supports the importance of ancestor worship in China during the period 600 BCE to 600 CE?

  (A) “Former kings of Xia cultivated earnestly their virtue, and then there were no calamities from Heaven.”

  (B) “It will bring the ruin of your ancestral temple.”

  (C) “Presented the heir-king reverently before the shrine of his grandfather.”

  (D) “The former king began with careful attention to the bonds that hold men together.”

9 . Which phrase can be seen as a statement of the roots of Daoist beliefs?

  (A) “Our king of Shang brilliantly displayed his sagely prowess.”

  (B) “The former king began with careful attention to the bonds that hold men together.”

  (C) “The birds and beasts . . . enjoyed their existence according to their nature.”

  (D) “The ways of Heaven are not invariable: on the good-doer it sends down all blessings.”

10 . What does the phrase below tell us about the ruler?

  “Heaven sent down calamities, using our ruler, who possessed of its favor.”

  (A) He had the Mandate of Heaven.

  (B) He was an absolute monarch.

  (C) He had lost the blessing of the gods.

  (D) He was killed as a result of natural disasters.

11 . Based on the passage, which of the following statements correctly describes politics in China during the period 600 BCE to 600 CE?

  (A) Reverence for nature leads to tranquility and peaceful transitions of power.

  (B) A ruler’s public actions were considered an extension of his private behavior.

  (C) Intelligence in a Chinese emperor was valued more highly than ethical behavior.

  (D) The emperor’s ministers were expected to support all of his policies unconditionally.

Questions 12 to 14 refer to the graph below.

12 . Which best accounts for the change in the Native American population shown in the graph above?

  (A) Widespread warfare among the Aztecs and neighboring tribes

  (B) Famine due to poor agricultural practices such as slash-and-burn agriculture

  (C) Importation of new diseases from contact with Europeans

  (D) The introduction of slavery into Mexico

13 . In the 16th century, Europeans were able to conquer and control large numbers of natives in Mexico using which of the following methods?

  (A) Enslaving them

  (B) Placing them on reservations

  (C) Legalizing intermarriage

  (D) Using superior technologies

14 . Both the encomienda system in colonial Mexico and the manorial system in medieval Europe depended on which of the following ingredients?

  (A) Support from the Catholic Church

  (B) Coercive labor

  (C) An educated merchant class

  (D) A decentralized government

Questions 15 to 17 refer to the passage below.

“Purusa-Sukta”

  Purusa is the lord of the immortals, who grow by means of [ritual] food. When the gods performed a sacrifice with the offering Purusa, spring was its clarified butter, summer the kindling, autumn the oblation.

  It was Purusa, born in the beginning, which they sprinkled on the sacred grass as a sacrifice. It made the beasts of the air, the forest and the village. From that sacrifice completely offered, the mantras [Rig Veda] and the songs [Samaveda] were born. The sacrificial formulae [Yajurveda] were born from it. From it the horses were born and all that have cutting teeth in both jaws. The cows were born from it, also. From it were born goats and sheep.

  When they divided Purusa, how many ways did they apportion him? What was his mouth? What were his arms? What were his thighs, his feet declared to be? His mouth was the Brahman, his arms were the Rajanaya [Ksatriya], his thighs the Vaisya; from his feet the Sudra was born. Thus, they fashioned the worlds. The gods sacrificed with the sacrifice to the sacrifice. These were the first rites.

—Hymns excerpted and adapted from the Rig Veda, oldest surviving literary work, India, 1500–1000 BCE

15 . Which element of the Hindu religion can this passage be used to explain?

  (A) The only requirement for salvation being faith

  (B) The importance of environmental stewardship

  (C) The importance of sacrifice to the gods

  (D) The emphasis on karma, or right actions, to achieve enlightenment

16 . Which of the following statements is supported by the information in the passage above?

  (A) The caste system was a purely social construct that reflected its time period.

  (B) The caste system was encouraged by regional princes to reinforce social stability.

  (C) The caste system reinforced Indian identity in the face of Muslim invaders.

  (D) The caste system was integral to the Hindu religion, transcending historical eras.

17 . Which of the following would best contradict the argument that the caste system imposed rigid economic and social roles on Indian society in the period 600 BCE to 600 CE?

  (A) “For there is nothing better for a Kshatriya than a righteous battle.”

  (B) “The four divisions of human society are created by me [Krishna].”

  (C) The person traditionally credited with composing the Mahabarata was born to a fisherwoman.

  (D) The Hindu God Shiva is considered to be simultaneously the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer.

Questions 18 to 20 refer to the passage below.

I have, in conformity without resolve, put together some few points concerning the reformation of the Christian estate, with the intent of placing the same before the Christian nobility of the German nation. . . . It is not out of mere arrogance and perversity that I, an individual poor man, have taken upon me to address your lordships. The distress and misery that oppress all the Christian estates, more especially in Germany, have led not only myself, but every one else, to cry aloud and to ask for help. . . . These Romanists have, with great adroitness, drawn three walls around themselves, with which they have hitherto protected themselves, so that no one could reform them, whereby all Christendom has fallen terribly. . . . That the Temporal Power Has no Jurisdiction over the Spirituality . . . That No One May Interpret the Scriptures but the Pope . . . That No One May Call a Council but the Pope. . . . Let us now consider the matters which should be treated in the councils, and with which popes, cardinals, bishops, and all learned men should occupy themselves day and night. . . . It is a distressing and terrible thing to see that the head of Christendom, who boasts of being the vicar of Christ and the successor of St. Peter, lives in a worldly pomp that no king or emperor can equal. What is the use in Christendom of the people called “cardinals”? I will tell you. In Italy and Germany there are many rich convents, endowments, fiefs, and benefices, and as the best way of getting these into the hands of Rome, they created cardinals, and gave them the sees, convents, and prelacies, and thus destroyed the service of God.

—Martin Luther, Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

18 . In his letter, Martin Luther avoided speaking about which of the following topics?

  (A) The wealth of the church

  (B) The power of the clergy

  (C) The sale of indulgences

  (D) The political nature of the church

19 . Which of the following reformers expressed views similar to those expressed by Martin Luther in his letter above?

  (A) Ulrich Zwingli

  (B) Sir Thomas More

  (C) Erasmus

  (D) John Wycliffe

20 . In response to the criticisms raised by Martin Luther and other Protestant reformers, the Roman Catholic Church made which of the following moves at the Council of Trent?

  (A) It accepted the doctrine of predestination.

  (B) It rejected saints as intermediaries.

  (C) It accepted scriptures in the vernacular.

  (D) It rejected salvation based on faith alone.

Questions 21 to 23 refer to the map below, depicting the “Scramble for Africa” that was codified at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885.

21 . The political boundaries shown on the map of Africa reflect which of the following white European beliefs?

  (A) Self-determination

  (B) Manifest destiny

  (C) Spheres of influence

  (D) Racial hierarchies

22 . What has changed since this map was drawn?

  (A) Political borders have reverted to their traditional ethnic boundaries.

  (B) Western economic interests have withdrawn from African affairs.

  (C) African nations have successfully adopted stable democratic governments.

  (D) African states have gained independence, but arbitrary colonial borders have persisted, resulting in ethnic violence.

23 . Which of the following is a direct legacy of the African colonial experience?

  (A) A lack of economic infrastructures

  (B) A Pan-African movement

  (C) A resurgence of mercantilism

  (D) Incorporation into world market systems

Questions 24 to 27 refer to the passage below.

The city of Ghana consists of two towns. One is inhabited by Muslims and has twelve mosques, salaried imams and muezzins, and jurists and scholars. In the environs are wells with sweet water, from which they drink and with which they grow vegetables. . . . The king’s interpreters, the official in charge of his treasury and the majority of his ministers are Muslims. Only royalty may wear sewn clothes. All other people wear robes of cotton, silk, or brocade, according to their means. . . . The king adorns himself like a woman, wearing necklaces round his neck and bracelets on his forearms. . . . He sits . . . in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses. When people who profess the same religion as the king approach him they fall on their knees and sprinkle dust on their heads, for this is their way of greeting him. As for the Muslims, they greet him only by clapping their hands. [The people’s] religion is paganism and the worship of idols. . . . On every donkey-load of salt when it is brought into the country their king levies one golden dinar, and two dinars when it is sent out. From a load of copper the king’s due is five mithqals, and from a load of other goods ten mithqals. . . . The nuggets found in all the mines of his country are reserved for the king, only this gold dust being left for the people. But for this the people would accumulate gold until it lost its value. Beyond this country lies another called Malal, the king of which was sincerely attached to Islam, while the common people of his kingdom remained polytheists. Since then their rulers have been given the title of al-musulmani .

—The Book of Routes and Realms , by Abu Ubaydallah al-Bakri, eleventh-century Muslim historian and geographer

24 . According to the passage, which statement below correctly describes the economy of Ghana?

  (A) The king of Ghana’s subjects are engaged in salt mining.

  (B) The Ghanians raised cattle for meat and hides.

  (C) The king of Ghana taxed salt and copper imports and exports.

  (D) The Ghanians had a self-sufficient farming economy.

25 . What evidence is there in the passage that Ghanians were engaged, directly or indirectly, in trade with Asia?

  (A) They kept horses in their court, which would have come from the Mongols.

  (B) The Ghanian king had adopted the Chinese tradition of the kow-tow .

  (C) The king adorned himself with gold and jewels, probably from India.

  (D) The people in his court wore silk robes.

26 . What is the most likely explanation for a Muslim being in charge of the Ghanian treasury?

  (A) To facilitate trade with the predominantly Muslim merchants during this era.

  (B) The king of Ghana had recently become a Muslim.

  (C) Merchants and trade were considered taboo in the traditional pagan religion.

  (D) African kings were merely vassals of the Muslim caliphs.

27 . Based on the excerpt, which of the following statements correctly describes Islam’s influence in Africa during this time period?

  (A) Imams and muezzins ensured that all Africans adhered to Islamic law.

  (B) Some elites converted to Islam, but lower classes kept their traditional beliefs.

  (C) Muslim merchants refused to do business with anyone who was not Muslim.

  (D) African kings required Muslims to conform to pagan customs at court.

Questions 28 to 32 refer to the map below.

28 . According to the map, the earliest Atlantic exploration voyages originated in

  (A) Spain.

  (B) Portugal.

  (C) Greenland.

  (D) Scandinavia.

29 . Which historical facts can be explained by the information on this map?

  (A) Eventually, the Dutch controlled the spice trade.

  (B) Brazilians today speak Portuguese.

  (C) Canada is divided into English- and French-speaking groups.

  (D) There is a strong Scandinavian community in North America.

30 . Zheng He engaged in oceanic exploration for China as early as 1405, well before the Europeans, yet 1450 is frequently used to mark the beginning of this era. Which statement below best explains using the later date?

  (A) Zheng He failed to contact other cultures, so he is widely viewed as a failure.

  (B) European influence is the most significant, so beginning with the European voyages makes sense.

  (C) China abandoned exploration early, limiting Chinese impact on a global scale.

  (D) The era is characterized by colonization, and the islands off the East African coast were colonized in 1450.

31 . Which part of the world had previously been omitted from trans-regional trade networks?

  (A) Southeast Asia

  (B) Africa

  (C) Europe

  (D) The Americas

32 . Which historical phenomenon resulted from the events depicted on the map?

  (A) Mercantilism

  (B) Nationalism

  (C) Industrialism

  (D) Communism

Questions 33 to 36 refer to the passages below. Both authors were speaking of the French Revolution.

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.

  There were a king with a large jaw and a queen with a plain face, on the throne of England; there were a king with a large jaw and a queen with a fair face, on the throne of France. In both countries it was clearer than crystal . . . that things in general were settled for ever.

—A Tale of Two Cities , by Charles Dickens

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive. But to be young was very heaven.

—The Prelude , by William Wordsworth

33 . Dickens’s and Wordsworth’s differing views about the French Revolution can be described, respectively, by which of the following adjectives?

  (A) Optimistic, encouraged

  (B) Understanding, accepting

  (C) Cynical, enthusiastic

  (D) Sincere, resigned

34 . One similarity between the French Revolution and the American Revolution is that both were responses to which of the following?

  (A) Transformation of the social class structure

  (B) Unfair systems of taxation

  (C) New proposed political structures

  (D) The privileges and influence of religious leaders

35 . Most revolutions produce a strong leading figure; the French Revolution allowed which of the following to assume great power?

  (A) King Louis XVI

  (B) Robespierre

  (C) Jean Lafitte

  (D) Lafayette

36 . The intellectual foundations of the eighteenth-century political revolutions were based on

  (A) the Reformation

  (B) mercantilism

  (C) the Enlightenment

  (D) the Reconquista

Questions 37 to 39 refer to the political cartoon below showing Woodrow Wilson, published in 1919.

Blowing Bubbles

37 . What does the cartoonist intend to suggest in the above political cartoon?

  (A) Woodrow Wilson was responsible for the failure of the League of Nations.

  (B) The forces of conflict were too strong for the League of Nations to overcome.

  (C) The League of Nations was too fragile to have lasted long.

  (D) Idealism is necessary to improve the world.

38 . Though the League of Nations was short-lived (1919–1946), it set the stage for which of the following?

  (A) NATO

  (B) The United Nations

  (C) The alliance system

  (D) The Marshall Plan

39 . Those who argue that the roots of World War II are found in the Treaty of Versailles, which created the League of Nations, point to which of the following?

  (A) The rejection of the League of Nations by the French and the British

  (B) Germany’s resentment at having to accept blame for World War I

  (C) Italy’s resentment at losing the territory it had won

  (D) The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Questions 40 to 43 refer to the passage below, an account given to a French officer in Algeria in the 1830s by a member of an Arab slave trade caravan.

The Slave Trade

All of you [soldiers], are summoned . . . to hunt the idolatrous Koholanes [a pejorative word for “black Africans”]. . . . The soldiery divided themselves into two companies . . . with orders to attack places without defenses and to carry off the inhabitants as well as seizing all peasants busy cultivating their fields. . . . Whilst waiting for the return of the companies despatched to hunt Negroes, we went every day to the slave market where we bought at the following prices:

A Negro with beard………………10 or 15,000 cowries.

They are not considered as merchandise since one has little chance of preventing them from escaping.

An adult Negress………………..10 or 15,000 cowries for the same reasons

An adolescent Negro………………….30,000 cowries

A young Negress ……………………50–60,000 cowries

The price varies according to whether she is more or less beautiful.

A male Negro child……………………..45,000 cowries

A female Negro child ……………………….35–40,000 cowries

Finally, our caravan which had set out from Algeria with sixty-four camels and only sixteen persons, was now augmented by four hundred slaves, of whom three hundred were women. . . . It was at this point that suddenly a confused noise of cries and sobs passed from one group of slaves to another and reached our own. . . . Some rolled on the ground, clung to bushes and absolutely refused to walk. . . . They could only be got up with mighty lashes of the whip and by rendering them completely bloody.

40 . Which conclusion is supported by the passage?

  (A) Africans passively accepted their capture and subsequent enslavement.

  (B) North Africans were primarily captured and enslaved by rival African tribes.

  (C) Population changes from slavery resulted in North African tribes having more men than women.

  (D) Adult male slaves were most highly valued due to their physical strength.

41 . What is the most likely destination for the captured slaves in the excerpt?

  (A) Elites’ homes or harems in the Middle East

  (B) Sugar plantations in Brazil

  (C) Cotton plantations in North America

  (D) Slave armies of the Mughal Empire

42 . Which statement best supports the argument that religion played a role in the Arab slave trade?

  (A) “Seizing all peasants busy cultivating their fields”

  (B) “With orders to attack places without defenses”

  (C) “Four hundred slaves, of whom three hundred were women”

  (D) “All of you [soldiers], are summoned . . . to hunt the idolatrous Koholanes”

43 . How was the Arab trade in Africans different from the Atlantic slave trade?

  (A) Unlike Arab slave merchants, those involved in the Atlantic slave trade were motivated by religion.

  (B) Slaves taken for the Atlantic slave trade had no prospect of eventual liberty, but slaves taken by Arab merchants did.

  (C) Slaves taken for the Atlantic trade were predominantly female; slaves taken by Arab merchants were mostly male.

  (D) Slaves taken by Arab merchants were likely to have a shorter life span than those taken for the Atlantic trade.

Questions 44 to 47 refer to the maps below.

The Middle East Before and After World War I Settlements, 1914–1922

44 . The second map shows which of the following?

  (A) The encomienda system of colonial influence

  (B) The League of Nations’ mandate system

  (C) Territorial changes from the Berlin Conference

  (D) Cold war influence in the Middle East

45 . Which twentieth-century principle of government is violated in these maps?

  (A) Colonialism

  (B) Self-determination

  (C) Containment

  (D) Mercantilism

46 . Which best explains why Great Britain, rather than another country, received control over the territory in Palestine?

  (A) The Balfour Declaration

  (B) The Zimmerman Telegram

  (C) The Berlin Conference

  (D) The Non-Aligned Movement

47 . What was the impact of the events reflected in these maps?

  (A) The Ottoman Empire retaliated.

  (B) Italy resented not receiving any territories through this system.

  (C) Australia eventually achieved independence.

  (D) Kuwait became part of Iraq.

Questions 48 to 51 refer to the chart below, from a speech entitled “Report on Work of Central Committee,” given by J. V. Stalin, March 10, 1939.

48 . Which statement is supported by the data in the chart?

  (A) The Soviets supported grain production at the expense of consumer goods.

  (B) All commodities had reduced agricultural output in 1938.

  (C) The Soviets had less demand for cotton than for flax fiber.

  (D) Over time, the Soviet Union increased production of all reported commodities.

49 . What should one consider when evaluating the point of view of these data?

  (A) Official government statistics are reliable because they are objective.

  (B) Increases in agricultural output were possible only because of German assistance.

  (C) Stalin had an incentive to overstate gains for propaganda and political reasons.

  (D) Soviet kulaks destroyed crops to protest Soviet policy, making the data invalid.

50 . Which of Stalin’s policies are most responsible for the information on the chart?

  (A) Collectivization

  (B) New Economic Plans

  (C) Five-Year Plans

  (D) The Great Leap Forward

51 . What was the effect of Stalin’s agricultural policies on the Soviet peasants?

  (A) Forced resettlement to Georgia because it had more arable land

  (B) Resistance through the destruction of crops and widespread famine

  (C) Greater economic stability through the introduction of new types of grain

  (D) Improved social status due to their importance to the Soviet economy

Questions 52 to 55 refer to the passage below. It is the Chinese emperor’s response to English King George III’s diplomatic envoys, who were seeking expanded trading privileges (1793).

Strange and costly objects do not interest me. If I have commanded that the tribute offerings sent by you, O King, are to be accepted, this was solely in consideration for the spirit which prompted you to dispatch them from afar. . . . As your Ambassador can see for himself, we possess all things. I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and have no use for your country’s manufactures. It behooves you, O King, to display even greater devotion and loyalty in future, so that, by perpetual submission to our Throne, you may secure peace and prosperity.

52 . According to the passage, what was the Chinese reaction to the British goods?

  (A) Awe at their technological superiority

  (B) Fascination with their strangeness

  (C) Offense at a perceived bribe

  (D) Interpreting them as an act of submission

53 . Why were the Chinese not interested in expanding trading rights with Great Britain?

  (A) The Chinese were angry over Britain’s interference in their foreign affairs.

  (B) The Chinese had a preexisting exclusive trade agreement with the Dutch.

  (C) They had no interest in the products that Great Britain could provide.

  (D) They were afraid that the British would gain too much influence within China.

54 . How did the Chinese restrict foreign trade during the era 1750–1900?

  (A) European merchants were confined to a few cities designated for foreign trade.

  (B) Only the Dutch traded with China; other Europeans had to use them as intermediaries.

  (C) The Chinese imposed extraordinary tariffs on all foreign products.

  (D) They passed laws intended to persecute and harass foreign residents.

55 . What was the impact of European demand for Chinese goods?

  (A) The Portuguese increased their international power and prestige.

  (B) The British shifted their focus for trade and colonization to Japan.

  (C) The bulk of the world’s silver supply moved to China.

  (D) The British sought control of the Malacca Strait.

Go on to Part B

PART B: SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS

Recommended Time for Part B—50 minutes

Directions: The short-answer questions are divided into parts; some questions have parts A and B, and others have parts A, B, and C. Answer all parts of each of the questions. Each of the four questions requires you to respond with three answers, and each of these answers is worth one point. Therefore, each question is worth a total of three points. Note that short-answer questions are not essay questions—they do not require development and support of a thesis statement.

Question 1 refers to the passages below.

Take up the White Man’s burden—

Send forth the best ye breed—

Go bind your sons to exile

To serve your captives’ need;

To wait in heavy harness,

On fluttered folk and wild—

Your new-caught, sullen peoples,

Half-devil and half-child. . . .

Take up the White Man’s burden—

The savage wars of peace—

Fill full the mouth of Famine

And bid the sickness cease;

And when your goal is nearest

The end for others sought,

Watch sloth and heathen Folly

Bring all your hopes to nought.

—Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden,” 1899

Pile on the Black Man’s Burden.

‘Tis nearest at your door;

Why heed long bleeding Cuba,

or dark Hawaii’s shore?

Hail ye your fearless armies,

Which menace feeble folks

Who fight with clubs and arrows

and brook your rifle’s smoke.

Pile on the Black Man’s Burden

His wail with laughter drown

You’ve sealed the Red Man’s problem,

And will take up the Brown,

In vain ye seek to end it,

With bullets, blood or death

Better by far defend it

With honor’s holy breath.

—H. T. Johnson, “The Black Man’s Burden”: A Response to Kipling, 1899

1. Answer parts A and B.

  A . Identify TWO characteristics of the “new imperialism” found in the excerpt from Kipling’s poem.

  B . Identify H. T. Johnson’s vision of “new imperialism” as expressed in “The Black Man’s Burden.”

2. Answer parts A and B.

  A . Explain TWO causes of the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe.

  B . Explain ONE effect of the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe.

Question 3 refers to the following quotations.

Study the past if you would define the future.

—Confucius

History is a vast early warning system.

—Norman Cousins

Until lions have their historians, tales of the hunt shall always glorify the hunters.

—African proverb

History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon.

—Napoleon Bonaparte

3. Answer parts A, B, and C.

  A . Explain the idea that Confucius and Norman Cousins share.

  B . Explain how the African proverb accounts for different interpretations of a single historical event.

  C . Explain Bonaparte’s view of the purpose of history.

Question 4 refers to the passage and the artworks below.

Art is, at some basic level, personal. People made it, reacted to it, treasured it in ways we can identify with. But art is also intrinsically political, designed to shape a view of the world in empowering ways, ways that write certain people and ideas into the record and leave others out. We need to see art from both perspectives.

—Holland Cotter

“Liberty Leading the People” by Eugène Delacroix (French), 1830

“Third of May 1808,” Francisco Goya (Spanish), 1814

4. Answer parts A, B, and C.

  A . Identify the response of the people in Delacroix’s artwork to a perceived oppressor.

  B . Identify the response of the people in Goya’s painting to a perceived oppressor.

  C . Explain how these works may be considered historical sources.

End of Section I

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AP WORLD HISTORY DIAGNOSTIC TEST

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Section II

Time: 90 minutes

PART A: DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION (DBQ)

Recommended reading time for Part A—15 minutes
Recommended writing time for Part A—40 minutes

Directions: The question is based on the documents below. The documents have been edited and adapted for this exam.

• Read the question below carefully.

• Then read all the documents.

• Begin by grouping the documents into categories that reflect their points of view, theme, or intended audience—that is, those that share commonalities.

• Create a thesis that addresses the entire question.

• Analyze the documents that support the thesis. You must use all (or all but one of) the documents.

• Give careful attention to the purpose, point of view, source, and historical context of each document.

• Do NOT list the documents or analyze them one at a time in your essay; they should be incorporated into your argument.

• Bring in historical examples that support your argument.

• Create a persuasive essay that upholds your thesis, connects your argument to the historical context, and draws conclusions.

1. Using the documents and your knowledge of world history, analyze the differing attitudes toward human rights, across time and place. Consider the focus and purpose of the documents.

Document 1

Document 2

Document 3

Document 4

Document 5

Document 6

Document 7

Go on to Part B

PART B: LONG-ESSAY QUESTION

Recommended Time for Part B—35 minutes

Directions: Answer ONE of the following questions.

1. Using specific examples, compare the economic causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution in Russia and England.

2. Using specific examples, compare changes in the social hierarchies (class structures) in England and Russia following their respective Industrial Revolutions.

STOP. End of Section II.

Answers and Explanations

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Section I, Part A: Multiple-Choice

1 . A The Hellenistic culture combined Greek elements with those from local cultures as Alexander the Great’s army conquered the area from North Africa to the Indus valley. Though Greek culture also spread into India through trade in the Bactria region, this image is unrelated to class systems (B). A frieze is not considered monumental sculpture (C). Buddhism is considered a belief system rather than a religion (D).

2 . D Hellenistic culture involved the blending of Greek and local cultures in the wake of Alexander the Great’s conquests of Asia Minor and the Indus valley region. Punic (A) refers to Rome’s wars against Carthage; and both Justinian (B) and Constantinian (C) refer to Byzantine emperors.

3 . C Under Alexander the Great, Greek culture blended with the conquered people’s ideas, institutions, and traditions. Gandhi was a 20th-century Indian nationalist who promoted Indian independence (A); and both Caesar Augustus (B), the first Roman emperor, and Chinggis Khan (D), the first Mongol emperor, retained local customs, but did not adopt them personally.

4 . D The Mongols did not require or force conversion, but encouraged tolerance of all religions. Public libraries (A), universal health care (B), and chess (C) were all characteristic of the golden age of Arab rule.

5 . A The Mongols, particularly the Golden Horde in Central Asia, used tribute as a method of asserting dominance over the Russian princes (B). The Mongols developed extensive trade networks in Central Asia (A). They did not use religion to reinforce their power (C). The Mongols also did not engage in large-scale public works projects (D).

6 . A With Russia’s conquest by the Mongols, its focus shifted from Western Europe toward the East and Central Asia. Russia was primarily a tributary state (B); it kept its nomadic ways and did not develop trade. The predominant religion in Russia was Orthodox Christianity (C), spread by the Byzantines. When the Mongols converted to Islam, it helped motivate Russia to break free. Russia remained a series of small, disunited principalities (D).

7 . A Both the Mongols and the Persians left cultural, political, and economic traditions in place, and even some conquered rulers as well. The Mongols typically moved into areas that were already occupied and used the resources that were already in place. Since they were nomadic, building large monuments to glorify themselves was not part of their culture (B). Neither culture is known for promoting equality for women. Both had traditions of harems (C). The Persians were not monotheistic (D); the religion that they were known for developing, Zoroastrianism, had two opposing godlike forces.

8 . C Paragraph 1 refers to the “shrine of his grandfather.” Shrines indicate worship. The following two paragraphs (choices A, B, and D) do not refer to ancestor worship.

9 . C Daoism emphasizes being true to one’s inherent nature. It (A) focuses exclusively on wisdom, (B) is inherently Confucian, and (D) is part of the Mandate of Heaven.

10 . A This choice describes the ruler as having heaven’s favor, which is synonymous with the Mandate of Heaven. Choice B is more suited to a discussion of Western history and is irrelevant. The careful reader will see in the text that “calamities” were sent to the previous, not the current, ruler (C). There is no indication that the ruler was killed (D).

11 . B The orgies of Ming Tiao, which were private actions, caused the loss of the Mandate of Heaven, a public consequence. Choice (A) misleads students by using terms (“tranquility,” “nature”) that are secondary to the main idea. Chinese emperors were expected to meet their ethical obligations to their subjects or suffer loss of power (C). Ministers’ obligations (D) are nowhere addressed in the passage.

12 . C With the arrival of the Europeans came diseases (including smallpox) to which the native peoples had no historical immunity. The Aztecs would have engaged in some warfare, but not enough to lead to such a steep decline (A). Though there was some slash-and-burn agriculture, they primarily used chinampas and terraces (B). Slavery had traditionally been part of Mexican culture, as seen in the Aztec Empire (D). The Europeans used native Mexicans as forced labor, but not until later.

13 . D The Europeans had guns and steel, against which the Mexicans had no effective defense. Catholicism prohibited the enslavement of Native Americans (A). Reservations were not used in Mexico (B). Intermarriage (C), although legal, could benefit native Mexicans, but would limit Spanish opportunities.

14 . B The encomienda system entitled Spanish conquerors to control Indian labor, and in return, the Spaniards “civilized and Christianized” natives. Medieval manorialism allowed landholders to give access to, though not ownership of, land to the peasants who worked it. While the Catholic Church approved of and supported both the encomienda and manorial systems, it did not directly involve itself in either (A). The merchant class was separate from the landholding class (C). Although the Spanish central (royal) government supported the encomienda system, there was no effective central government to support manorialism (D).

15 . C Sacrifice, the source of creation, is mentioned throughout the passage. Salvation through faith (A) is a key element of Protestantism. Though the passage has references to the elements of nature (B), there is no emphasis on stewardship. Karma (D) is not explicitly discussed in the passage.

16 . D The Rig Veda is a Hindu religious text, and its inclusion of the origins of the caste system make this a feature of their religion. A religious construct is not a social construct (A). This passage does not address social stability (B) or the reaction of Indians to the Muslim presence (C).

17 . C That a lowborn person could compose a sacred text implies social mobility. Choice (A) supports the argument, since it encourages Kshatriyas to follow their rightful role. Choices (B) and (D) do not address the argument.

18 . C The sale of indulgences is nowhere mentioned in the excerpt. The wealth of the church (A) is referred to with the phrase “worldly pomp”; the power of the clergy (B) and the political nature of the church (D) are both addressed in the discussion of temporal versus spiritual power.

19 . B Sir Thomas More was executed for refusing to support Protestantism in England. Zwingli (A), Erasmus (C), and Wycliffe (D) were all either precursors or advocates of Protestant reform.

20 . D The Church reiterated the need for clerical interpretation of scripture and the necessity of good works in order to achieve salvation. Predestination and use of the vernacular (A, C) were both Protestant ideas and thus were rejected. The Council of Trent continued most Catholic practices, including the use of saints as intermediaries (B).

21 . D The Europeans clearly ignored or discounted linguistic and ethnic divisions, and the wishes and traditions of indigenous cultures, because they considered them unimportant in the “white” scheme of things. Self-determination (A) refers to the idea that indigenous peoples should rule themselves, which was clearly not the case here. Manifest destiny (B) is a term associated with U.S. westward expansionism. Spheres of influence (C) refers to European economic imperialism in dealings with China.

22 . D In the post-colonial period, Africa has struggled with ethnic violence among rival groups who were artificially bound together within colonial borders. Most African nations retained their colonial borders (A). Western economic interests (B) have persisted to the present, particularly in the oil and diamond industries. African nations have struggled with political corruption and instability (C).

23 . A Colonial dominance depended on cash crops and raw materials and did not encourage any development of an artisanal or manufacturing sector. The Pan-African movement (B) was limited in duration, scope, and effectiveness. Mercantilism (C) was a historical economic system and isn’t really seen today. African nations are not evenly incorporated into world market systems (D). They remain peripheral.

24 . C The passage refers to the king levying dinars and mithqals on loads of salt and copper. The reference to salt (A) explains that it is imported. Cattle were located in Malal, not in Ghana (B). Ghanians grew vegetables, but the passage indicates that it was enough to be self-sufficient (D).

25 . D At this time, the most likely source of silk was China. Horses had a centuries-old presence (A) in Africa. There is no reference to touching one’s head to the floor (B) and the Muslims simply clap, so while there was a ritual involving kneeling, it was not universal. Gold and jewels (C) were commonly sourced from Africa.

26 . A Muslims dominated the trade network in Africa in this period. The king who converted was not from Ghana (B), but from Malal. There was a strong tradition of trade in Africa, and the Africans’ religion, unlike Islam, did not concern itself with merchants or trade (C). For the most part, African kings (D) remained independent.

27 . B Because elites often converted for economic reasons, lower classes were allowed to maintain their traditional practices. Many Africans were not Muslim, and so choice (A) is too strong a statement to be accurate. Muslim merchants probably gave more favorable terms to their religious cohorts, but they did not limit their trade only to Muslims (C). According to the passage, Muslims were allowed to greet the king in their own manner (D).

28 . D The earliest voyages recorded on the map were made by Vikings before 1000 CE. Both Spain and Portugal (A, B) did not explore until the 1400s. Greenland (D) was a Viking destination and not a point of origin.

29 . B Brazilians speak Portuguese as a result of the line of demarcation established by the Treaty of Tordesillas (the Pope’s Line through South America) in 1494. The Dutch (A) are not included on the map. Only English voyages (C) to Canada are listed, and therefore they cannot explain French-speaking Canadians. Although the Vikings did land in North America (D), they did not establish a presence.

30 . C China abandoned exploration during the Ming Dynasty at the behest of Confucian officials so that the country could focus on protecting its borders. Zheng He in fact contacted many other cultures (A) and brought many exotic animals and products home to China. Choice (B) is an ethnocentric statement and reflects a point of view rather than historical reality. The islands off the East African coast were not colonized by 1450 (D).

31 . D The Americas had had local, but no trans-regional, trade. Southeast Asia, Africa, and Europe (A, B, and C) had engaged in several trans-regional trade networks, including those along the silk roads, across the Indian Ocean, and around the Mediterranean.

32 . A Mercantilism developed in conjunction with colonies, arising out of exploration. Nationalism is associated with the 19th and 20th centuries (B); industrialism is associated with the 18th and 19th centuries (C); and communism is a 20th-century political phenomenon (D).

33 . C The only possible description of Wordsworth’s reaction is enthusiasm, and thus the other answers (which would make him encouraged [A], accepting [B], or resigned [D]) are unacceptable. C also accounts for Dickens’s somewhat cynical take, as when he says, “things in general were settled forever.”

34 . B In France, the heavy tax burden was borne exclusively by the third estate, who could least afford it. In the American colonies, colonists disputed the contention that Parliament had the right to impose taxes on the colonies without colonial representation in Parliament. The American Revolution changed very little with regard to the existing class structure; however, France’s class structure changed dramatically (A). Although France wanted to abolish the monarchy, the American colonists kept the ideals of a bicameral legislature, separation of powers, and colonial legislatures, as well as representative government (C). The French Revolution sought to limit the influence of religious leaders, but the American Revolution did not.

35 . B Robespierre, called “the Incorruptible,” was known initially as the champion of the social revolution that took place in France. Later, in 1794, he was considered a dictator and summarily executed. Louis XVI (A) was the king who was overthrown by the French Revolution. Jean Lafitte (C) was a pirate. Lafayette (D) was known for his participation in the American Revolution, but he was a moderate where the French Revolution was concerned, and was eventually exiled from France.

36 . C Enlightenment thinkers responded to the social and economic ills that had characterized 17th- and 18th-century France; they sought to replace the aristocratic old order with a rational, practical, more bourgeois society and government. The Reformation (A) was a 16th-century religious movement aimed at reforming the corrupt Catholic church. Mercantilism (B) was an economic theory that was popular with colonial powers, especially in 16th-, 17th-, and 18th-century Europe. The Reconquista refers to the centuries-long Christian reconquest of Spain from Arab domination.

37 . C By comparing the League of Nations to a bubble, the artist implies that it was delicate and could not last. Woodrow Wilson is creating, not destroying, the bubble (A). There is no reference to conflict in the cartoon (B). There is also no reference to the necessity for idealism or the idea that the League of Nations will improve the world (D).

38 . B In theory, the United Nations was the successor to the League of Nations. Founded after World War II, it promoted peaceful international relations, acted as an arbiter in international disputes, and called for its member nations to solve sociocultural, economic, and political (humanitarian) problems around the world.

39 . B The so-called war guilt clause forced Germany to agree that it was solely responsible for World War I, creating German anger and resentment toward the other European nations at the conference. Both France and Britain joined the League of Nations (A). Italy did not lose territory in World War I, although it did in World War II (C). The Austro-Hungarian Empire’s dissolution played no role in the hostilities leading up to World War II (D).

40 . C The passage specifies that more women than men were enslaved, and also that women slaves brought more profit. This would result in tribes with an overpopulation of men. The passage refers to the resistance of slaves (A), and their prices indicate the possibility of escape. The captors in the passage were primarily Arab (B), as indicated by the introduction. Women were more highly valued than men because of their beauty, as indicated in the price lists (D).

41 . A Because the slaves were predominantly women and had been captured by Arabs, they were most suited for domestic service or harems. Sugar plantations (B), cotton plantations (C), and armies (D) all favored physical strength, resulting in a preference for males. Arabs did not engage in the Atlantic slave trade, but sold slaves primarily in the Middle East.

42 . D Specifying that captives were “idolatrous” makes it clear that the slavers were working off a religious premise. Choices A, B, and C all refer to the capture of slaves, not to their ultimate destination or purpose and not to their religious beliefs.

43 . B According to the end of the excerpt, the North African slaves could look forward to the possibility of freedom. While all slave trade was motivated by profit, the passage indicates that the North Africans rationalized the capture of Africans who were considered idolaters (A). West African slaves were predominantly male; North African slaves were predominantly female (C). Slaves doing plantation work in the Caribbean had a notoriously shorter life span, and most of those slaves came from West Africa (D).

44 . B The map reflects the distribution of the defeated Central Powers’ territories by the League of Nations after World War I. The encomienda system is Latin American (A) and thus is not on the map. The Berlin Conference (C) dealt with all of Africa and included more European nations than simply Britain and France. The cold war (D) did not play out in the Middle East and would have referred to the Soviets and the United States.

45 . B Self-determination refers to the right to rule oneself. Colonialism (A) involves a foreign power being either directly or indirectly in control of another nation. Containment (C) refers to the policy of stopping the spread of communism, which was not an issue in the Middle East. Mercantilism (D) was an economic system associated with colonialism and imperialism, whereas the map refers to political administration.

46 . A The Balfour Declaration indicated that Britain could eventually support a Jewish state, and other countries made no public statement. The Zimmerman Telegram (B), the Berlin Conference (C), and the Non-Aligned Movement (D) do not refer to the Middle East and are therefore incorrect.

47 . B After World War I, Italy, having joined the Allied Powers after the start of the war, received neither reparations nor territory; therefore, the Italians resented what they perceived to be an unfair division of the spoils of war. The Ottoman Empire was dissolved and never reformed (A); Australia (C) is completely irrelevant to the map; and Kuwait (D) never became part of Iraq.

48 . D Between 1933 and 1937, according to the chart, production of all the cited commodities increased. Consumer goods (A) are not referred to in the chart. While grain, flax, sugar beets, and oil seed experienced reduced outputs in 1938, cotton production increased (B). The Soviets had more, not less, demand for cotton than for flax fiber (C).

49 . C Stalin wanted to remain in power, and thus had an incentive to produce not just more goods, but positive political propaganda. Official governmental statistics (A) are often notoriously unreliable, designed to maintain or increase support for a government. German assistance is nowhere accounted for in the data at hand (B). Also, it was not until 1939 that Germany and Russia, who had supported opposing sides of those fighting the Spanish Civil War, signed a nonaggression pact. Kulaks (wealthy Russian peasants) had been mostly exterminated by the 1920s (D).

50 . A Collectivization, or Stalin’s plan to create state-run rather than individually held farms, constituted the economic and political planning at the heart of communism. New Economic Plans (B) refer to Lenin; Five-Year Plans (C) refer more to industry than to agriculture; and the Great Leap Forward (D) refers to Mao Zedong’s efforts in the late 1950s to recapture the rural, peasant base that had made his revolution possible.

51 . B The peasants under Stalin exerted resistance by destroying crops (and thus his positive data about crop production). Ultimately, collectivization led to repression and the outright slaughter of peasants and to famine. While there was some relocation of peasants during collectivization, they were not removed en masse to Georgia (A). Rather than seeing increased economic stability, the peasants lost what little economic stability they had had (C). The situation of the peasantry was negatively rather than positively affected by Stalin’s economic policies (D).

52 . D Qianlong, the Qing emperor, makes it clear that he has no use for Great Britain’s goods and that only through British submission to the Chinese throne and its stated wishes will there be peace and prosperity. The Chinese reaction to British goods is that while they are perhaps strange and ingenious, they are of no use to a country that has everything (A, B). Rather than perceiving the British manufactured goods as a bribe (C), the Chinese see them as a form of tribute.

53 . C “We possess all things,” writes the Chinese emperor; therefore, anything that the British could produce held no interest for China. While not necessarily angry, the Chinese were very clear that barbarians (including the British) were not allowed to participate in the country’s foreign or domestic affairs (A). There was no agreement with the Dutch dealing with exclusive trading privileges with the Chinese. The Dutch followed the practice of working within established Asian trading systems (B). The Chinese pointed out in the letter that no foreigner, or barbarian, was allowed free access to economic, political, or cultural systems (D).

54 . A European merchants were indeed closely monitored and their movements restricted to specific areas and cities. Likewise, their exchanges with Chinese people were limited. Both the Portuguese and the British (as well as the Dutch) traded with China (B). Products themselves were limited (C), but they did not carry extraordinary tariffs. Laws were intended only to confine and monitor foreign residents (D).

55 . C Demand for Chinese products was high, but the Chinese had no interest in European goods, preferring instead to be paid in silver. This created a huge demand for silver, driving mining efforts by the Spanish in the Americas. Because the Portuguese did not have the resources to maintain control of the Indian Ocean trade, their prestige and power declined (A). The British had important colonies in India, and the Japanese also took steps to restrict trade with foreigners (B). The Malacca Strait, though important, was never controlled by the British (D).

Section I, Part B: Short-Answer Questions

1A . You should mention at least two characteristics of the new imperialism (19th century) that are shown in the Kipling work. These may include emigration, settlement, war, and a condescending attitude toward native peoples (who are seen as children who need to be civilized and socialized). There is also an obligation on the part of the colonizer to improve the infrastructure.

1B . Johnson envisions the new imperialism as something characterized by violence, superior technology on the part of the colonizer, and a sense of the black man’s increasing troubles. You need to identify only one of these elements.

2A . You need to include two of the causes of the Industrial Revolution, such as scientific advancements (the steam engine, the Bessemer process); public and private support for improved transportation infrastructures; and increased access to natural resources (coal, for example).

2B . The effects of the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe might include rural-urban migration; colonial or imperial expansion to secure markets, labor, and resources; changing family structures; and reform legislation (like the First Reform Bill in England in 1832). You need identify only one effect.

3A . You should recognize that Cousins and Confucius both indicate that to understand the past is to prepare for the future.

3B . The African proverb makes it clear that history is written by the victors. Women, slaves, peasants, and marginalized and conquered peoples are not given a point of view or are ignored or repressed.

3C . Bonaparte makes it clear that history can be used to justify the present; that is, the past explains the “why” of current political, economic, or social conditions.

4A . Key words to identify the people’s response in Delacroix’s work might include resistance, defiance, rebellion, or aggression.

4B . Key words to identify the response visible in Goya’s work are submission, surrender, or resignation; but you might find that both paintings exhibit defiance and interpret the Goya painting as showing the consequences of that defiance.

4C . Both of these works show the point of view or perspective of two groups: those being depicted in the artworks and those of the artists. Thus, the artwork records, reflects, and refers to historical events and conditions. Art is a commentary, but it can also often be a call to action.

Section II, Part A: Document-Based Question

The question addresses the evolution of human rights across time and continents. You must sustain a thesis or an argument that explains changes in the idea or scope of human rights. You should take into consideration the following points: Are the human rights documents personal, political, public, or private? Why were the documents created? In other words, what are the focus and purpose of human rights declarations? You should consider the sources of the documents as you analyze them and include outside historical events that may have influenced their creation.

A good response would draw on six or seven of these documents (that is, all or all but one of them) to trace the evolution of human rights, particularly in order to emphasize differences between Eastern and Western perspectives.

You should incorporate analyses of the documents. You may begin by dividing the documents into those that focus on social/socioeconomic, religious, or political points. Since all the documents are “official,” or produced by governing bodies, you can make the case that all of them are political. You may also note that some of the documents focus on human rights in a national context (Documents 1 and 3); some focus on the individual (Documents 2, 4, 5, and 7); and some are clearly more global in focus (Documents 6 and 7). There may be some overlap; that is, some documents will fall into more than one category. Simply listing the characteristics of the documents, however, leaves open the question of connections between documents, connections that point out similarities and differences in the focus and purpose of human rights declarations. For example, Document 7 stands out for its emphasis on the ties between religion and human rights; and while it focuses on the individual, it does so within a religious context.

The thesis therefore should address both similarities over time (continuity) and differences in point of view and purpose.

In this question, you are asked to determine what historical events or which historical context would answer the prompt most thoroughly. For example, you might want to point out that the Magna Carta was the King of England’s response to pressures from noble landowners who were intent on keeping some of the power they had achieved during the feudal era. This would eventually contribute to the formation of constitutional or parliamentary monarchies and to the expansion of bureaucratic systems involving checks and balances.

Having considered the various points of view, you may want to discuss the nature of human rights concerns—from national (Document 1) to more individual (Documents 4 and 5) to transnational or global (Documents 6 and 7). Clearly the Recopilación (Document 3) reflects the somewhat idealistic (and nationalistic) thoughts governing settlement of the New World in the Age of Exploration and Discovery.

You may consider whether human rights are absolute, as implied in Western (although not Eastern) documents. Or, you may want to make the case that human rights are dependent on situation or location (Document 7). This would lead to an analysis of changes in government—from absolutism to the revolutionary ideal of natural law, or, in other words, from the idea of power residing in the highest earthly authority to its being inherent in human beings.

Finally, because most of the documents refer to law, you could also consider whether human rights are primarily a legal or an ethical-religious-moral concern, again according (always) to the documents. Also, you need to consider the linear chronology of changes, matching those changes to contemporary historical events.

A good response, thus, will show the connection between theory (of human rights) and action (governmental responses to demands for human rights); and it will both strengthen the original thesis’s contentions and demonstrate an ability to extrapolate from documents the nuances of historical thought.

Section II, Part B: Long-Essay Question

A good response may begin with the creation of a verbal Venn diagram, or at least the overlapping section of one, and the laying out of the generally acknowledged causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution. From 1750, population growth and migration created both new markets for goods and a new (primarily urban) labor pool. New technology and inventions (e.g., the steam engine) resulted in more efficient means of transportation, communication, and production of goods. The abolition of slavery in Western Europe, and of serfdom in Russia, resulted in rural-urban (agricultural to industrial) migration patterns and sustained economies by providing workers.

These elements, in turn, resulted in more specialized labor, a growing middle class that had the income to buy proliferating goods, and a stronger sense of national identity, or nationalism, with this last often replacing traditional mores and even religion, and contributing, along with enhanced means of transportation and communication, to two world wars. Western Europe, and later Russia, embraced a new imperialism in its search for raw materials, and other areas (like Latin America, for example) remained a source for those raw materials as well as for agricultural products. As industry grew, capital and labor provided a general improvement in the standard of living and increased free time for leisure activities (including professional sports, movies and live entertainment, vacations, and travel).

The environmental effects of the Industrial Revolution are both manifold and cumulative: factories and industry have generated air, land, and water pollutants (both in Western Europe and in Russia). The search for raw materials has resulted in deforestation and exhaustion of soils (in Latin America and Africa).

Perhaps the most striking and longest-lasting effect of the Industrial Revolution has been globalization, the integration of economic markets, free trade, and the flow of capital (human and monetary).

Scoring: How Did I Do?

As you evaluate how you did on the diagnostic exam, you need to keep several things in mind.

First, look again at the chart from the first chapter of the book. This tells you how much of your score will be determined by each part of the test. The multiple-choice section counts the most, but no one part of the exam will determine your final grade. The scoring chart below reflects the same percentages shown here.

To use the scoring chart below, you’ll have to grade your own answers for the short-answer questions, the document-based question, and the long essay. Look at the explanations and evaluate how your answers measure up. Determine the points you should probably receive for each question based on the total points possible shown on the worksheet below.

This worksheet uses a different point system from the actual test, but the result is similar. In the end, you’ll have an idea of how you performed on the practice test on the same 1–5 scale used on the actual test. The apcentral.collegeboard.com website has specific information about rubrics for the questions. Your teacher should also have this information.

Finally, keep in mind that the conversion chart below will provide only an approximation of your score. In fact, the actual conversion chart the College Board uses varies a little each year and is determined only after the test is scored.

Scoring Worksheet

Section I, Part A Multiple Choice

Section I, Part B Short Answer

Section II, Part A Document-Based Question

Section II, Part B Long Essay

Approximate conversion from raw score to AP score:

Tips for Taking the Exam

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Use these question-answering strategies to raise your AP score.

Key Ideas

If you don’t know an answer on a multiple-choice question, try to eliminate one or more answer choices and then guess. There is no penalty for guessing.

Write a solid thesis statement on all essays.

On the DBQ, use document grouping to analyze the question.

On the DBQ, analyze point of view and the need for an additional document.

On the long essay question analyze the causes and effects of continuity and change and analyze comparisons.

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Multiple-Choice Question

The multiple-choice section of the Advanced Placement World History examination consists of 55 multiple-choice questions. You will have 1 hour, 45 minutes (105 minutes) to complete the multiple-choice and short-answer sections; it’s recommended you spend 55 minutes on the multiple-choice questions. Each multiple-choice question has four answer choices.

The multiple-choice questions require you to analyze the material you have covered in the course. Many of the questions require you to compare among societies, events, or processes, or to indicate how they have changed over a period of time. Some of the questions require you to interpret a written passage, photograph, political cartoon, map, chart, or graph. The following question is an example of one that compares two colonial societies during the new imperialism:

Compared to most African colonies, the British colony in India

(A) was allowed more practice in self-government

(B) was a model of technology transfer

(C) did not receive the benefits of improved transportation

(D) did not rebel against its European imperialist power

Answer (A) is correct; the British allowed Indians to engage in some local rule. Answer (B) is incorrect; neither African colonies nor India were recipients of much technology transfer. Answer (C) is incorrect because both benefited from the transportation systems initially established for the colonizing nations. Answer (D) is incorrect; the Sepoy Rebellion was a revolt against British rule in India.

The following are some frequently asked questions concerning the multiple-choice section:

1. If I don’t know an answer, should I guess or leave the question unanswered? There is no guessing penalty on the multiple-choice section. If you do not know an answer, you should select the answer choice that you think is correct. Don’t leave any multiple-choice questions unanswered; correct guesses are correct answers.

2. What strategy should I use to narrow the possible answer choices? Of the four answer choices found in each question, one is often obviously incorrect. In addition to the correct choice, there is often another answer which is almost correct. Another possibility is that two of the answer choices are correct, but one is a better answer than the other. The best advice is to read the question very carefully to determine exactly what the question is asking, then eliminate the weaker answers until you arrive at the best answer.

3. Will I be required to know a lot of dates and people to answer the multiple-choice questions? Some knowledge of specific dates and people will be necessary to answer the multiple-choice questions. For the most part, however, the multiple-choice questions on the Advanced Placement World History examination ask you to compare societies, issues, or trends within one or more of the Advanced Placement World History time periods or to analyze how societies, issues, or trends have changed and remained the same over one or more time periods.

The Short-Answer Questions

In Section I, Part B, of the test, you will be given a series of four free-response questions. Each of the four questions is divided into two or three parts. These questions account for 20 percent of your score. You will be given an hour and 45 minutes to answer Parts A and B of Section I; it’s recommended that you spend 50 minutes of that time on the short-answer questions.

Many of the short-answer questions are based upon a stimulus such as a quotation, graph, chart, picture, or map. Other questions in this portion of the exam may ask you to identify and explain examples of a process, an AP World History theme, or events occurring within a given AP World period. For example, you may be asked to identify and explain the reasons for two types of migration during the twentieth century, or you may be required to identify two religions that arose during the period between 600 BCE and 600 CE and explain why these religions became popular among certain ethnic groups or social classes. Yet another question may require you to read a short summary of an argument and provide examples from world historians to support and refute the argument. You are not required to include a thesis statement in your answers to any of the questions in this portion of the exam. Since you have only 50 minutes to complete this section, you need to read the question and the stimulus, if provided, and then compose an answer that is accurate, brief, and right to the point of the question.

Here are some strategies that will help you succeed on the short-answer questions:

• Read the question stem, paying close attention to the task(s) you are required to address for that question.

• Remember that you must answer all four questions in this section, and also that you must answer all parts (A, B, and also C, if there is a part C) of each question.

• Remember that the short-answer questions do not require a thesis statement and that taking the time to compose a thesis statement will not add to your score.

• Keep your answers concise and to the point. In other words, just answer the specific questions you are asked.

Document-Based Question

After completing the multiple-choice and short-answer sections, you will have 90 minutes to complete the essays. You will receive a booklet that contains the prompts for both essay questions and a second booklet with lined paper for your responses. You may answer the essay questions in any order. During this portion of the test, you will have to budget your own time; you will not be told at which point you are to move on to the next question.

The suggested time for answering the document-based question is 55 minutes. You should spend approximately 10 minutes reading the documents, 5 minutes in prewriting, and 35 minutes writing your essay. The document-based question usually contains 4 and 10 documents. Although some of the documents will be text, others may be photographs, drawings, political cartoons, maps, graphs, or charts. In order to successfully answer the document-based question (DBQ), you need to meet the following requirements:

1. Write a solid thesis statement. Do not simply restate the question. Be sure that you take a stand on one side of the topic addressed by the essay prompt.

2. Show by your analysis of the documents that you understand their meaning. You may misinterpret one document and still receive the point for this task.

3. Use evidence from all or all but one of the documents to support your thesis. Give specific supporting details from the documents.

4. Analyze the documents by grouping them in two or three ways, depending on the question. Do not merely list your documents or summarize them individually in the order in which they appear in the text.

5. Analyze point of view in at least two documents. Begin this task by looking at the author, the author’s background, the date on which the document was written, and any other information provided in the attribution, or the introductory information given before the document. In your essay, discuss how the author’s background formed his or her point of view.

6. Identify one type of additional document or source that would be useful in analyzing the essay prompt. Ask yourself, “Whose voice or opinion is missing?” Explain why the document or source is needed.

If you perform all the above tasks satisfactorily, you will receive a total of seven points on the document-based question. You are then eligible to earn one or two additional points by writing an essay that displays one or more quality points such as:

• an exceptionally clear, analytical thesis

• exceptionally strong analysis of the documents

• analysis of point of view in most of the documents

• the inclusion of appropriate additional historical evidence or more than one additional document

The following are some frequently asked questions regarding the document-based question.

1. How do I begin answering the question? Read the question carefully so that you know what the question is asking you to do. A good idea is to underline the task word (such as analyze, compare, evaluate), the topic, and the time parameters (dates, centuries, or periods) contained in the essay prompt.

2. What is the next step? Group your documents in several useful categories.

3. How do I cite the documents? A manner of citation that is especially useful for the reader who scores your essay is to include the number of the document in parentheses after making a reference to it. For example: (Document 2). You also may choose to mention the name of the author or quote or paraphrase from the document to identify it.

4. Where do I place the analysis of bias or point of view? This analysis may be placed anywhere in the essay. It is most effective, however, if discussed in the same paragraph in which the document is analyzed.

5. Where do I mention the need for an additional document? The discussion of the additional document may be included anywhere in the essay.

6. Will I lose points for incorrect spelling or grammar? No. Each essay begins with a score of “0.” As each task required by the question is accomplished, the reader adds a point to the score. Points are never deducted. Because spelling and grammar are not included in the tasks required to complete the essay, incorrect usage will not result in denial of a point.

7. Will I lose points for errors such as incorrect dates? Refer to the description of scoring in Question 6. If a date or other information is incorrect, the incorrect information will not be scored. If you have included an abundance of correct evidence in your essay, the incorrect material will not result in loss of opportunity to receive the points for historical evidence.

8. What are some of the most common errors students make in answering the question? The most common errors on the DBQ are forgetting to include a discussion of bias or point of view and omitting a discussion of the additional document. Another common error is not answering the question asked in the essay prompt.

9. Should I underline my thesis statement? No, the reader is capable of determining whether or not you have included an appropriate thesis statement in your essay.

10. May I use a highlighter? Highlighters are not permitted.

Long Essay Question

The long essay question will test your ability to analyze continuty and change-over-time, or to compare a society, event, theme, or process. You will be given a choice: pick one of two essays on this part of the exam.

The continuity and change-over-time essay tests your ability to analyze how societies, trends, or issues have changed then remained the same over long periods of time. The suggested writing time for this essay is 35 minutes, including 5 minutes devoted to prewriting. You will be given a choice of several geographical or cultural regions and will be asked to choose either one or two of those regions on which to base your essay. The continuity and change-over-time questions will involve change and continuity over one or more of the Advanced Placement World History time periods.

Begin by writing a thesis statement that addresses the topic. Be sure to mention the dates or time periods from the essay prompt in your thesis statement.

Depending on the wording of the essay prompt, you may choose to divide your essay into three sections. Begin by describing the region(s) that you chose at the beginning date mentioned in the essay prompt. In the second part of your essay, describe the region(s) during the middle portion of the time period. In the third section of your essay, discuss the region(s) at the end of the time period addressed in the essay prompt.

In order to address continuity in your essay, consider how the societies or issues remained the same at the beginning, during, and at the end of the time period included in the essay prompt. You must explain how the changes and continuities in your essay relate to global processes occurring at the same time. Analyze the causes and effects of the changes and continuities.

The following are some frequently asked questions regarding the continuity and change-over-time essay:

1. Does the thesis statement have to appear at the beginning of the essay? No, the thesis statement may appear at the beginning or at the end of the essay. Since the thesis statement serves as a guide for the essay, however, it is better to place it at the beginning of the essay.

2. Do I have to write a conclusion to my essay? Your essay does not need to have a conclusion. If you have sufficient time to meet all the criteria for the essay and write a short conclusion, fine. If you are pressed for time, however, skip the conclusion and proceed to the next question.

3. What are the most common errors made in the continuity and change-over-time essay? One of the most common errors on this essay is the writer’s lack of knowledge of world geographical and cultural regions. (For help in this area, consult Chapter 5 in Step 4 of this manual.) Another common error is omission of a discussion of continuities across the time period. Other essays are not answered successfully because they compare only the beginning and the end of the time period in question and fail to address changes and continuities in the middle portion of the period.

The comparative essay question requires you to write an essay that compares and contrasts societies or issues. This question may cover one or more of the Advanced Placement World History time periods. Suggested writing time for the comparative essay is 35 minutes, including a 5-minute prewriting period. In most cases, you will be given several regions and will be asked to compare issues between two of the regions. Some examples of issues that you may be asked to compare are gender roles, political structures, trade, and migrations.

Begin by writing a thesis statement that takes a stand on one aspect of the issues to be compared. Do not simply restate the essay prompt. A statement such as the following, for example, is not an adequate thesis statement: “There are many similarities and differences between the slave trade in the Indian and Atlantic Ocean basins in the period between 1450 and 1750.” An adequate thesis statement might read: “While the Indian Ocean slave trade carried slaves from eastern Africa to European-owned plantations in the Indian Ocean between 1450 and 1750, a more vigorous slave trade across the Atlantic between western Africa and the Americas effected profound and enduring changes upon the societies of the Western Hemisphere.”

In order to respond adequately, it is necessary to make one or two direct comparisons between the societies or issues addressed. Analyze the direct comparison by showing the causes and effects of similarities and/or differences. An example of a direct comparison is: “Egypt’s natural barriers provided a degree of isolation, allowing the Egyptian culture to develop somewhat independently. Unlike Egypt, Sumer was surrounded by few natural barriers, making it vulnerable to frequent invasions and influences from other civilizations and societies.”

A good comparative essay will make more than one direct comparison and will include both similarities and differences. Analysis of the regions or issues within the global context will also strengthen the essay.

The following are some commonly asked questions concerning the comparative essay.

1. What are the most common errors on the comparative essay? One of the most common errors is failure to answer the right question as a result of not reading the essay prompt carefully. Another very common problem is failure to make at least one direct comparison between the societies or issues addressed in the essay prompt.

2. Does my essay require an introduction? No. Many students waste time writing elaborate introductory sentences or paragraphs to the free-response questions. The best approach is to state your thesis statement, then defend it with historical details and analyses.

3. If the essay prompt asks for a comparison between two regions, must I deal with the regions as a whole, or may I compare one country from each region? Either approach is allowed. You may even treat one region as a whole and deal with the second region through the example of one country.

4. Is it necessary to know the issues in both regions equally well? No. As long as you answer all parts of the question, you may write an essay that is stronger in one area than the other.

The World History Environment and Periodization

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Before we begin to consider the scope of the human story, we must first consider the stage on which the story unfolds: the land and the oceans themselves. The Advanced Placement World History course divides the globe into a number of regions that include the following: East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Southwest Asia (the Middle East) and North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, North America, Latin America, and Oceania. The map overleaf illustrates the location of these regions. Keep in mind that political boundaries among nations may vary considerably throughout the different periods of history.

Key Terms

An asterisk (*) denotes items listed in the glossary .

civilization*

climate*

cultural diffusion*

independent invention

monsoon*

steppe*

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Oceans and Seas

The history of the world did not occur in land areas alone; the oceans and seas also have their own stories to tell. Vast migrations of both ancient and modern peoples took place across the waterways of the world; plants, animals, and diseases were exchanged; and competition arose among explorers seeking new lands and merchants pursuing profits. A few points to understand when studying the oceans are:

• The Arctic Ocean, the smallest of the world’s oceans, is packed in ice throughout most of the year. Extremely difficult to navigate, it is the location of the famed northwest passage sought by early European explorers. The passage is barely usable because of its ice-bound condition.

• The Indian Ocean, the third largest of the oceans, has seen extensive trade since the people of the Harappan civilization sailed through one of its seas, the Arabian Sea, to trade with Sumer. Throughout history the Indian Ocean has seen Malay sailors and Chinese, Muslim, and European traders use the ocean’s monsoon winds to guide their expeditions through its waters. Africa also was drawn into this trade. Oftentimes, commercial activity in the Indian Ocean produced intense rivalries, especially among the Dutch, Portuguese, and Muslim sailors in the seventeenth century.

• The Atlantic Ocean became the scene of exchange between the Eastern and Western hemispheres after the voyages of Columbus produced an encounter among European, African, and American peoples. The Caribbean Sea saw the meeting of the three cultures on the sugar plantations of the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries. The Mediterranean Sea, joined to the Atlantic Ocean, saw the glories of early Middle Eastern and Greco-Roman civilizations. Northern European societies traded in the waters of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.

• The Pacific Ocean, the world’s largest, is dotted with islands that witnessed the ancient voyages of the Polynesian peoples of Oceania. The Bering Sea was the route of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas into those continents. Societies of East and Southeast Asia communicated with one another by means of the Sea of Japan and the South China and East China seas. The Manila galleons of the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries joined Latin America, the Philippine Islands, and China in trade. World wars saw the use of Pacific islands for strategic purposes.

The chart below illustrates some of the political units and physical features of various world regions.

Periodization

A unique feature of the Advanced Placement World History course is its division into six periods. It is important for you to familiarize yourself with these periods; the ability to compare and contrast societies, events, and trends within periods will be necessary skills to master the multiple-choice questions as well as the comparative and document-based questions on the AP examination. You will also need to analyze the impact of interactions among societies. Likewise, a grasp of the changes and continuities (those things that stayed the same) between periods is important to success on the multiple-choice, the continuity and change-over-time, and document-based questions on the exam. The six AP World History periods are:

• Period 1 Technological and Environmental Transformations (to c. 600 BCE)

• Period 2 Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies (c. 600 BCE to c. 600 CE)

• Period 3 Regional and Transregional Interactions (c. 600 CE to c. 1450)

• Period 4 Global Interactions (c. 1450 to c. 1750)

• Period 5 Industrialization and Global Integration (c. 1750 to c. 1900)

• Period 6 Accelerating Global Change and Realignments (c. 1900 to the present)

Notice that dates in AP World History use the designations BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era). These designations correspond to BC and AD, respectively.

AP World History Themes

In each of these six periods, there are five broad themes that the course emphasizes. These are:

• Human-environmental interaction: disease and its effects on population, migration, settlement patterns, and technology

• Cultural development and interaction: religions, belief systems, and philosophies; science and technology; and the arts and architecture

• State-building, expansion, and conflict: political structures and forms of government; empires; nations and nationalism; revolts and revolutions; and regional, transregional, and global organizations and structures

• Creation, growth, and interaction of economic systems: agriculture and pastoralism, trade and commerce, labor systems, industrialization, and capitalism and socialism

• Development and change in social structures: gender roles, family and kinship relations, race and ethnicity, and social and economic class structures

Civilization Versus Society

Another consideration in the AP World History course is the role of societies as well as civilizations. Historians commonly define a civilization as a cultural group that displays five characteristics:

• Advanced cities

• Advanced technology

• Skilled workers

• Complex institutions (examples: government, religion)

• A system of writing or recordkeeping

Not all peoples on the earth live in cultural groups that meet these five criteria. Yet inhabitants of societies (cultural groups that do not satisfy all five characteristics of a civilization) also have made significant contributions to the course of world history. One example is that of the highland people of Papua New Guinea, many of whom lack a written language even today, yet who count among the earliest farmers in the world.

Independent Invention Versus Diffusion

Still another consideration in the Advanced Placement World History course is the question of whether cultural diffusion or independent invention is the more significant method of exchange. For example, in Chapter 6 of this study guide, you will read of the spread of agriculture throughout the globe. In this case, it is the task of the historian to investigate where agriculture arose independently, in addition to tracing its diffusion, or spread, through the migration of agricultural peoples. Also, contact of migratory peoples with one another was responsible for the exchange of ideas and technological inventions in addition to the knowledge of agriculture. Patterns of independent invention compared to those of cultural diffusion will remain a thread woven throughout the story of humankind.

Rapid Review

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The Advanced Placement World History course is unique in its inclusion of both civilizations and societies in its narrative of global history. The division of the course into periods assists you in analyzing global events and trends throughout a specific era by considering comparison, changes, and continuities.

Review Questions

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1 . Interactions between Muslims and Europeans during the seventeenth century are most commonly found in the

  (A) Atlantic Ocean

  (B) Arctic Ocean

  (C) Indian Ocean

  (D) Pacific Ocean

2 . An Advanced Placement World History region that can be classified as a cultural region is

  (A) South Asia

  (B) North America

  (C) Latin America

  (D) Southeast Asia

3 . The study of oceans in world history

  (A) focuses on trans-Atlantic themes

  (B) focuses on the commercial activities of elite classes

  (C) has less impact on global history than the study of land masses

  (D) coordinates with an emphasis on societies as well as civilizations

4 . An example of diffusion rather than independent invention is the

  (A) Sumerian use of the wheel

  (B) Mayan concept of zero as a place holder

  (C) origin of the Greek alphabet

  (D) cultivation of the banana in Southeast Asia

5 . Periodization in the Advanced Placement World History course

  (A) begins with the rise of river valley civilizations in Period 1

  (B) assists students in comparing societies and trends within periods

  (C) is irrelevant to the content of document-based questions

  (D) limits the study of continuities between historical periods

Answers and Explanations

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1 . C The seventeenth century witnessed intense rivalry among Europeans and Muslims for trade dominance, especially in spices, in the Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean (A) was the scene of interactions among Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans, whereas the Arctic Ocean (B) saw limited trade among various Inuit peoples. The Pacific Ocean (D) saw limited contacts between Europeans and Pacific Islanders as well as interactions among the Spanish, Chinese, Filipinos, and Indians of South America through the voyages of the Manila galleons.

2 . C Latin America embraces the political regions of Mexico, the Caribbean, and South America, with the unifying force a common heritage stemming from speakers of Romance languages. Mexico, for example, belongs politically to North America and culturally to Latin America. South Asia (A), North America (B), and Southeast Asia (D) are regions with commonly defined political boundaries.

3 . D The study of oceans embraces societies such as Polynesian islanders and Malay peoples in addition to accounts of civilizations. The Indian and Pacific Oceans as well as the Atlantic (A) involve accounts of rich cultural interactions including various social classes (B). Interactions across the ocean waters are no less vital to global history than those across land masses (C).

4 . C The Greek alphabet originated with the Phoenicians who, through trade, transmitted its knowledge to the Greeks. The Sumerians invented the wheel (A). The Mayans originated the concept of the place holder in the Western Hemisphere (B). Southeast Asia was an area of independent cultivation of the banana (D).

5 . B The organization of the Advanced Placement World History course by periods facilitates comparing societies and trends in those periods. Period 1 begins with the rise of global agriculture (A). Periodization assists students in analyzing the time periods addressed in document-based questions and organizing the study of continuities between time periods (C, D).

Development of Agriculture and Technology

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: One of the most significant developments in world history was the independent emergence of agriculture, a process that had already taken place in some locations throughout the Eastern Hemisphere by 8000 BCE. The so-called Agricultural Revolution, or Neolithic Revolution, was in reality more of a slow process resulting from the warming of global temperatures. The accompanying historical period, known as the Neolithic Age (or New Stone Age), was named for its characteristic tools made from stone.

Key Terms

Agricultural Revolution*

animism*

artifact*

foraging*

Neolithic Age

Neolithic Revolution

Paleolithic Age

pastoralism*

slash-and-burn cultivation*

specialization of labor*

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The Transition from Foraging to Agriculture

At the close of the Paleolithic Age (or Old Stone Age), the transition from foraging (hunting and gathering) arose as nomadic groups returned to favorite grazing areas year after year. Perhaps some nomadic peoples made an effort to cultivate those crops that they found most appealing; later they may have transplanted seeds from these same favored crops to other areas through which they traveled. Because hunting required greater physical strength, the early cultivation of plants was probably a task left to women, granting them increased importance among agricultural peoples. Women farmers studied the growth patterns of plants as well as the effect of climate and soil on them. Agricultural development included the domestication of animals as well as the cultivation of crops.

Independent Origins of Agriculture: A Timeline

Key developments in the history of agriculture show the following events in the process:

• Agriculture began sometime after 9000 BCE with the cultivation of grain crops such as wheat and barley in Southwest Asia. Animals such as pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats also were domesticated.

• By 7000 BCE Sudanese Africa and West Africa cultivated root crops such as sorghum and yams.

• Inhabitants of the Yangtze River valley cultivated rice about 6500 BCE.

• About 5500 BCE, people of the Huang He valley began the cultivation of soybeans and millet. They also domesticated chickens and pigs and, later, water buffalo.

• In Southeast Asia, perhaps around 3500 BCE, inhabitants grew root crops such as yams and taro as well as a variety of citrus and other fruits.

• Around 4000 BCE, the peoples of central Mexico cultivated maize, or corn, later adding beans, squash, tomatoes, and peppers.

• The principal crop of the Andean region of South America was potatoes, first cultivated around 3000 BCE. Maize and beans were added later. The only domesticated animals in the Americas were the llama, alpaca, and guinea pig.

The Spread of Agriculture

After agriculture was established independently in various locations across the globe, the knowledge of crop cultivation spread rapidly. In fact, it was the nature of early agricultural methods that aided the extension of agricultural knowledge. An often-used agricultural method called slash-and-burn cultivation involved slashing the bark on trees and later burning the dead ones. The resulting ashes enriched the soil for a number of years. When the soil eventually lost its fertility, however, farmers were forced to move to new territory. By 6000 BCE, agriculture had spread to the eastern Mediterranean basin and the Balkans, reaching northern Europe about 4000 BCE. These frequent migrations exposed early farmers to new peoples, diffusing both agricultural knowledge and cultural values.

Characteristics of Early Agricultural Societies

Although agriculture required more work than foraging, it had the advantage of producing a more constant and substantial food supply. Consequently, the spread of agriculture not only increased cultural contacts but also produced significant population growth. As populations multiplied, neolithic peoples began to settle in villages. Members of agricultural communities had to cooperate, especially in constructing and maintaining irrigation systems. As villages grew and agriculture continued to supply an abundance of food, not all villagers were needed as farmers. Some inhabitants began to develop other talents and skills such as the manufacture of pottery, metal tools, textiles, wood products, and jewelry. Two early noteworthy agricultural settlements were:

• Jericho (established around 8000 BCE) in present-day Israel. Here farmers produced wheat and barley, while also trading with neighboring peoples in obsidian and salt. Characteristic of Jericho was a thick wall designed to protect the wealthy settlement against raiders.

• Çatal Hüyük (established around 7000 BCE) in Anatolia (present-day Turkey). Residents of this village left artifacts representing a variety of craft products indicating an extensive specialization of labor . They also traded obsidian with neighboring peoples.

Pastoralism

As agricultural communities arose, pastoralism developed in the grasslands of Africa and Eurasia. Pastoralists, or herders, contributed meat and other animal products to the overall food supply, further enlarging neolithic human populations. At times their overgrazing of livestock led to soil erosion. Both agricultural and pastoral peoples exchanged food products and technology.

Early Metallurgy

In addition to the development and spread of agriculture, the Neolithic Age witnessed the origins of metallurgy. The first metal that humans learned to use was copper, with which they cast items such as jewelry, weapons, and tools. Later, neolithic humans learned the use of other metals such as gold and bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), giving rise to the term Bronze Age for the later neolithic period. Still later, the knowledge of ironworking was developed independently in Central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Culture of Neolithic Societies

As human populations concentrated in permanent settlements, the specialization of labor as well as trade activity resulted in differing degrees of accumulation of wealth. As time progressed, differences in family wealth manifested themselves in the emergence of social classes.

The inhabitants of early agricultural societies observed their environment in order to further their knowledge of the factors necessary to produce a bountiful harvest. Their knowledge of the seasons in relation to the positions of heavenly bodies led eventually to the development of calendars. Interest in the natural world led neolithic humans to celebrate fertility and the cycles of life. Many agricultural and pastoral societies practiced animism , or the belief that divine spirits inhabited natural objects such as rocks and trees. In addition, archeologists have unearthed numerous figures representing pregnant goddesses in the ruins of neolithic villages.

Beginnings of Cities

As population growth resulted in larger settlements, the agricultural world experienced the rise of cities. Urban areas offered further specialization of labor and more sophisticated technology. New roles emerged as cities required administrators, collectors of taxes and tribute, and religious leaders. Cities also acquired influence over larger territories than villages did.

Rapid Review

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The Neolithic Age saw independent origins of agriculture worldwide. As the knowledge of agriculture spread, cultural diffusion marked the ancient world. When crop cultivation produced increasingly larger yields, some farmers specialized in other tasks or crafts. As population concentrations grew increasingly dense, settlements grew into villages and, later, cities. Cities developed a more complex social structure to administer wealth, provide order, and study the meaning of life itself.

Review Questions

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1 . Early agriculture in the Americas

  (A) developed as a result of cultural diffusion from the Eastern Hemisphere

  (B) featured the domestication of larger animals than in the Eastern Hemisphere

  (C) began later than in the Eastern Hemisphere

  (D) did not produce the wide variety of crops that the Eastern Hemisphere did

2 . The Agricultural Revolution

  (A) began with an extensive pattern of cultural diffusion

  (B) occurred about the same time throughout the world

  (C) was an abrupt process beginning in 8000 BCE

  (D) saw the use of agricultural methods that encouraged migration

3 . During the Agricultural Revolution, women

  (A) participated in hunting activities with men

  (B) experienced a decrease in status

  (C) were not represented in neolithic art

  (D) observed and studied the agricultural environment

4 . The Neolithic Age

  (A) saw the beginnings of urbanization

  (B) saw the process of agriculture carried out without the use of metal tools

  (C) produced societies without class distinctions

  (D) saw a decline in global populations

5 . Early urban dwellers

  (A) were dominated by peoples in agricultural settlements

  (B) left the pursuit of religious practices to agricultural peoples

  (C) saw the need for a government

  (D) were offered few opportunities to carry out specialized tasks

Answers and Explanations

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1 . C Agriculture in the Americas began around 5000 BCE, whereas that in the Eastern Hemisphere had begun at least 3000 years earlier. Agriculture in the Americas developed independently (A). Animals in the Americas were smaller than those in the Eastern Hemisphere (B). Although food crops in the Americas differed from those in the Eastern Hemisphere, a wide variety, including maize, squash, beans, and cacao, was produced (D).

2 . D Slash-and-burn cultivation resulted in the migration of early agricultural peoples as the soil lost its fertility. The Agricultural Revolution developed independently throughout the world (A) and at different times (B). The beginning of agriculture was a gradual process (C).

3 . D Women studied the growth of plants and became the first farmers. Men handled the more strenuous duties of hunting (A). Women’s roles as farmers and childbearers gave them an importance in neolithic society (B), a role that was represented in the fertility statues of the Neolithic Age (C).

4 . A The first cities arose in Sumer. Some neolithic societies used tools of copper, bronze, and later, iron (B). Societies were often stratified, with elite classes, peasants, and slaves (C). Because of the success of early agriculture, population rose rapidly worldwide during the Neolithic Age (D).

5 . C Government arose from a need to cooperate in major projects such as irrigation and flood control. Early cities tended to embrace and extend their governments to nearby agricultural settlements (A). Religious leaders played a role in early cities (B), and specialization of labor was commonplace (D).

Structure of Early Civilizations

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: As agricultural villages evolved into cities, some urban areas began to display the characteristics of civilizations (described in Chapter 5 ). The earliest civilizations in the Eastern Hemisphere arose in Mesopotamia, the Nile, the Indus, and the Huang He valleys; civilizations arose later among the Olmecs in Mesoamerica (Middle America) and the Chavín in the Andes Mountains of South America.

Key Terms

covenant*

cuneiform*

diaspora*

hieroglyphics*

jati *

mandate of heaven*

matrilineal*

monotheism*

oracle bones*

patriarchal*

pharaoh*

polytheism*

Quetzalcóatl

Ten Commandments

theocracy*

Torah*

untouchables*

Varna *

Vedas *

Yahweh*

ziggurat*

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Mesopotamia

The world’s earliest civilization arose in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in an area the Greeks called Mesopotamia (“Land Between the Rivers”). The cultural achievements of Mesopotamia represented independent innovation, achievements that it passed on to other river valley civilizations in Egypt and, especially, the Indus valley. Around 4000 BCE, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia used bronze and copper. By this time they had already invented the wheel and developed irrigation canals to farm the arid lands of their environment.

About 3500 BCE, a group of invaders called the Sumerians settled in the southernmost portion of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians developed the first example of writing. Called cuneiform , it involved pictures pressed into clay using a wedge-shaped stylus. The pictographs initially stood for objects, but later were refined to represent sounds. The Sumerians also developed a number system based on 60 and studied the movement of heavenly bodies. In architecture, the Sumerians expressed the glories of their civilization and of the many gods of nature that they worshipped by building towers called ziggurats . They are credited with relating the first epic in world history, The Epic of Gilgamesh, which includes a story of a great flood similar to that of the biblical account in Genesis.

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were noted for their unpredictable and often violent flooding. Irrigation systems to control flooding and channel water for agricultural use required the cooperation of Mesopotamia’s settlements. This need promoted the beginnings of government. Early Mesopotamian government was in the form of city-states, with a city government also controlling surrounding territory.

A social structure headed by rulers and elite classes controlled the land, which was farmed by slaves. Slaves could sometimes purchase their freedom. Sumerian families were patriarchal , with men dominating family and public life. Men had the authority to sell their wives and children into slavery to pay their debts. By the sixteenth century BCE, Mesopotamian women had begun to wear the veil in public. In spite of these restrictions, Mesopotamian women could sometimes gain influence in the courts, serve as priestesses, or act as scribes for the government. Some worked in small businesses.

A lack of natural protective barriers made Mesopotamia vulnerable to invasion by outsiders; most cities in the region constructed defensive walls. Frequent conflicts among local Sumerian kings over water and property rights weakened the city-states. The Sumerian culture later fell to conquest by the Akkadians and the Babylonians, both of whom spread Sumerian culture. The Babylonian king Hammurabi devised a code of laws that regulated daily life and also provided harsh “an eye for an eye” punishments for criminal offenses. The Code of Hammurabi drew distinctions between social classes and genders, administering less severe punishments to elite classes over commoners and men over women for the same offense. After 900 BCE, Assyrians and Persians dominated Mesopotamia.

Egypt

About 3000 BCE, a second civilization grew up along another river valley, this time the valley of the Nile River in present-day Egypt. In contrast to the unpredictable waters of the Tigris–Euphrates, those of the Nile overflowed once annually, discharging an amount of water that usually varied little from one year to the next. As in Mesopotamia, irrigation projects to channel floodwaters led to the organization of the community and ultimately to the development of political structures. Although several major cities emerged along the Nile, most Egyptian communities were agricultural villages engaged in local trade along the Nile.

The king of Egypt, or pharaoh , wielded considerable power. About 2700 BCE, the pharaohs began the construction of huge pyramids that served as tombs for themselves and their families. These tombs were decorated with colorful paintings. Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians were polytheists , or worshippers of many gods. Their belief in an afterlife led to the practice of mummification to preserve the bodies of pharaohs and, later, those of members of lower classes.

Egyptian society was composed of a number of defined social classes. Within this social structure, however, commoners could enter government service and rise in social status. Egyptian families were patriarchal, with men dominating households and community life. Among the royalty, however, women sometimes acted as regents for young rulers or as priestesses. Other educated women worked as scribes for the Egyptian government.

The Egyptians did not acquire the use of bronze tools and weapons until long after they had reached Mesopotamia. From the Nubian kingdom of Kush, a site of the independent innovation of ironworking, the Egyptians acquired iron implements.

The Egyptians engaged in some trade with the people of Mesopotamia and later with the kingdom of Kush to the south. Some historians believe that Egyptian picture writing, or hieroglyphics , was developed from Sumerian cuneiform as a result of trade contacts with Mesopotamia. Cultural diffusion from Egypt produced a Nubian civilization that incorporated Egyptian pyramids, writing, and religion into its own culture. In addition, the Nubian kingdom of Kush invaded Egypt in the eighth century BCE and ruled the Egyptian people for about a century. Throughout most of its early history, however, surrounding deserts protected Egypt from contact with invading peoples, permitting its civilization to develop its own, unique characteristics.

Indus Valley Civilization

By 2500 BCE, another advanced civilization had emerged along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. Like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Indus River was noted for its unpredictable and often violent pattern of flooding. Among the urban centers that arose along the Indus were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Streets in both cities were laid out along a precise grid, and houses boasted running water and sewage systems.

Much of what historians know about the Indus valley civilization must come from archeological discoveries, because Harappan writing has yet to be deciphered. Archeological findings of Harappan artifacts in Mesopotamia indicate active trade between the peoples of the Indus valley and Sumer by way of the Persian Gulf. Around 1500 BCE, the Harappan civilization was overtaken by a group of Indo-European peoples called Aryans. The Harappan civilization which the Aryans conquered had already declined markedly, perhaps as a result of rivers changing their course or a natural disaster such as an earthquake. The blend of the traditional culture of the Indus valley people and that of the Aryans had a profound effect on the future course of Indian history.

Backgrounds of Classical India

The roots of classical India began during the invasions of the Aryans about 1500 BCE. From their original home in Central Asia, the Aryans brought a tradition of hunting and cattle herding; after their arrival in South Asia, however, they adapted the agricultural methods of native peoples. Aryan iron tools facilitated their success in agriculture.

Although the people of the Harappan civilization of the Indus valley possessed a written language, the Aryans did not. Much of our knowledge of the Aryans comes from their oral epics, called the Vedas . The Vedas were later written down in the Sanskrit language, which remains a prominent language in India today. The influence of the Vedas is evident in the term applied to the early classical period of Indian culture, the Vedic Age (1500 to 500 BCE). The first Aryan epic, the Rig-Veda, is a collection of hymns in honor of the Aryan gods. Other epic literature which shaped Indian culture during the Epic Age (1000 to 600 BCE) includes the Ramayana , the Mahabharata (considered the greatest epic poem of India), and the Upanishads, a collection of religious epic poems.

Aryan Society

Aryan society was based on a village organization composed of families with patriarchal control. Their society was further organized along a class system. When they invaded the Indus valley, the Aryans, who were fair-complexioned compared to the native people they conquered, perceived the people of the Indus valley as inferior. Therefore, they modified the class system with which they were already familiar in their society to define the new relationship between conqueror and conquered. Society was divided into four distinct classes, or varna , based on skin color:

• Kshatriyas, or warriors and rulers

• Brahmins, or priests

• Vaisyas, or merchants and farmers

• Sudras, or common workers

The first three classes were composed of Aryans, the fourth of the Dravidians, or the native people of India whom the Aryans encountered at the time of their invasion. During the Epic Age, the first two classes reversed in order of importance. At the very bottom of the social structure was a classless group of untouchables . Members of this group were involved in occupations perceived as distasteful, such as handling waste products, carrying out the dead, or butchering animals. As the classes became hereditary they became castes, or rigid social classes that seldom permitted social mobility. Within each caste were numerous subcastes, or jati , that further defined Indian society.

The Aryans also introduced to Indian culture their own array of gods and goddesses. Part of their belief system was the veneration of some animals, particularly cattle.

The Shang

The most isolated of the four river valley civilizations was that of the Huang He valley in present-day China. Although the people of the Huang He valley dwelled in a region isolated by deserts, mountains (the Himalayas), and seas, they did engage in some trade with Southwest Asia and South Asia.

The earliest Chinese dynasty that left written records was the Shang dynasty (1766 to 1122 BCE). A key element of the Shang period was the knowledge of bronze metallurgy. This knowledge, which came to China from Southwest Asia by means of Indo-European migrations, strengthened the Shang war machine. Around 1000 BCE, the Shang also became familiar with ironworking. Shang rule was further empowered by the need for central rule to oversee irrigation and flood-control projects along the Huang He River.

During the Shang period, a number of walled cities arose. These urban areas served as cultural, military, and economic centers. Elaborate palaces and tombs were built for Shang rulers.

Examples of early Chinese writing are apparent from a custom of divination using oracle bones . When a person sought the advice of the gods on an issue, he or she would visit an oracle, who would scratch the person’s question on an animal bone or shell, then heat it. When the oracle bone cracked from the heat, the oracle read the cracks to determine the message from the gods.

Shang society was stratified, with classes of ruling elites, artisans, peasants, and slaves. Families were patriarchal, and the veneration of ancestors was common. The matrilineal society that characterized China before the rule of the Shang gradually eroded until women held positions subordinate to those of men.

The Shang dynasty eventually succumbed to the Zhou about 1122 BCE. The Zhou claimed that they overthrew the Shang by the will of the gods, which they termed the “mandate of heaven .” Under the rule of the Zhou, the tradition of central authority that first took root under the Shang continued.

Mesoamerica and Andean South America

Civilizations in the Americas rose later than the river valley civilizations. The civilizations of Mesoamerica and the early societies of the Andes Mountains of South America did not develop in the valleys of major rivers, but rather in a region of smaller rivers and streams near ocean coastlines. Furthermore, the people of the Americas did not know the use of the wheel, nor did they possess large animals to serve as beasts of burden or work animals; the llama of the Andes Mountains was the largest work animal in the Americas from the time of the earliest civilizations until the arrival of the Europeans in the fifteenth century. Human muscle accomplished physical labor in the Americas.

Early Mesoamerican people such as the Olmecs, and later the Maya, constructed lavish pyramids and temples. Like the inhabitants of the river valley civilizations, the people of the Americas were polytheistic, worshipping many gods of nature. Society was stratified, with distinctions among the elite classes of rulers and priests and those of commoners and slaves.

Early Mesoamerican societies provided numerous examples of cultural diffusion. In addition to the transmission of the cultivation of maize, terraced pyramids were commonplace. Regional inhabitants fashioned calendars, the most elaborate being that of the Mayan civilization. The Mayans also had a ball game played on a court. The societies of Mesoamerica also shared the legend of Quetzalcóatl , a god who would someday return to rule his people in peace.

In South America, geography and the lack of large pack animals largely prevented communication between the Andean societies and those of Mesoamerica. The cultivation of maize did spread to the Andes, however, while copper metallurgy traveled northward to Mesoamerica. About 900 BCE, the Chavín civilization arose in the Andean highlands of present-day Peru. Characterized by a religion that worshipped gods representing crocodiles, snakes, and jaguars, the Chavín built complex temples to honor their gods. Their civilization was located along trade routes that connected western coastal regions to the Amazon rainforest. For a few centuries, Chavín religious unity and trade connections provided a degree of cultural identity to Andean peoples. The rugged terrain of the Andes, however, prevented a central government from unifying the Andean states.

The Hebrews

Along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea lived the Hebrews, another people who profoundly influenced the course of world history.

The concept of monotheism , or the worship of one god, is attributed to the Hebrews, or Jews. The Hebrews traced their origins back to Abraham, who is said to have migrated from Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean about 2000 BCE. In the account recorded in the Bible, the descendants of Abraham migrated to Egypt. They later left Egypt, embarking on a journey called the Exodus under a leader named Moses. In the biblical account, the Exodus was marked by the giving of the Ten Commandments , or moral law of the Hebrews. Returning to the land of Canaan, or Palestine, they established a theocracy , or a government ruled directly by God.

The heart of Judaism was a covenant , or agreement, between God and Abraham in which Yahweh would be their god and the Jews would be his people. The history of this covenant relationship became the basis of the Torah , or the Hebrew scriptures.

After years of observing the governments of neighboring kingdoms, the Hebrews established the kingdom of Israel about 1000 BCE with is capital at Jerusalem. The kingdom eventually divided into two kingdoms. The northern kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 BCE. Its inhabitants were scattered throughout the far reaches of the Assyrian empire, constituting the first Jewish diaspora , or exile. The southern kingdom, called Judah, endured until 586 BCE. Conquered by the Chaldeans (from approximately the same territory as the Babylonian Empire), the people of Judah were carried off into captivity into Babylon. After Cyrus conquered the Chaldeans and allowed the Jews to return to Palestine 70 years later, Palestine remained under Persian rule until it became the province of Judea under the Roman Empire in 63 CE. In 132 CES, after they rebelled against Roman rule, the Jews were spread throughout the Roman Empire in a second diaspora.

Rapid Review

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Beginning with Sumer in Mesopotamia about 3500 BCE, civilization grew along the river valleys of the Tigris–Euphrates, Nile, Indus, and Huang He. These civilizations were characterized by community cooperation necessary to manage irrigation and flood control systems. Later their cooperative efforts were further organized to form the beginnings of political institutions. The knowledge of metallurgy led to the refinement of tools, weapons, and objects of art. Writing systems were developed, and social stratification became apparent. In the Americas, civilizations and societies made notable strides in mathematics, astronomy, and architecture.

Review Questions

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1 . The Egyptian civilization was similar to the Sumerian civilization in

  (A) its reliance on natural defense barriers

  (B) its system of social stratification

  (C) its political structure

  (D) the extent to which its culture was diffused

2 . The earliest civilizations in both the Eastern and Western hemispheres were similar in

  (A) their location at similar latitudes

  (B) their technological knowledge

  (C) their reliance on the flooding of major rivers in their midst

  (D) their practice of polytheism

3 . The Indus valley civilization

  (A) relied heavily on communal planning

  (B) is best studied through its written records

  (C) was isolated from other river valley civilizations because of surrounding mountains

  (D) declined after the arrival of Aryan invaders

4 . The early civilization with the least-developed technology was

  (A) Mesoamerican

  (B) Harappan

  (C) Egyptian

  (D) Sumerian

5 . The roots of classical India included

  (A) the Aryan written language, or Sanskrit

  (B) the egalitarian Aryan society

  (C) Aryan agricultural knowledge

  (D) Vedic traditional literature

6 . Shang China

  (A) left no decipherable written records

  (B) was prevented by natural barriers from trading with other early civilizations

  (C) contributed to the development of central government in China

  (D) was less urbanized than the Nile valley civilization

7 . Early societies of South America

  (A) were challenged by geographic limitations

  (B) developed societies that had no knowledge of metals

  (C) traded widely with regions to their north

  (D) built upon Mesoamerican cultural traditions

8 . Results of cultural diffusion among early civilizations included

  (A) the invention of the wheel

  (B) the legend of Quetzalcóatl

  (C) the cultivation of potatoes

  (D) Harappan sewage systems

Answers and Explanations

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1 . B Both Egypt and Sumer had societies comprising various social classes of the elite, peasants, and slaves. Whereas Egypt enjoyed natural defense barriers, Sumer did not (A). Sumer was governed by kings of local city-states, whereas the Egyptian pharaoh was the supreme ruler (C). Although the Egyptians largely developed themselves culturally, Sumerian culture was widely diffused by later conquerors (D).

2 . D All the earliest agricultural civilizations worshipped many gods. They were located in different latitudes (A) and enjoyed different levels of technology (B). The civilizations of the Western Hemisphere did not rely on the flooding of rivers (C).

3 . A The presence of granaries and well-planned street grids in the cities of the Harappan civilization of the Indus valley is evidence of considerable community planning. The writing of the Harappan civilization is so far undecipherable (B). Indus valley peoples bypassed mountain barriers and traded by sea (C). Their civilization had already declined markedly before the arrival of the Aryans (D).

4 . A Early Mesoamerican civilizations did not even have the knowledge of the wheel, whereas the other civilizations mentioned did not have to rely only on human muscle for construction or irrigation projects.

5 . D The traditions of the Vedas became an integral part of Indian society. Sanskrit, the language of the Aryans, was originally an oral language only (A). Aryan society consisted of a number of classes based on skin color, which would become the foundation of the Hindu caste system (B). Aryans were nomadic peoples who learned of agriculture from the Dravidian people of India (C).

6 . C The Shang brought the settlements of northern China under the control of a centralized government. The Shang were the first Chinese dynasty to leave written records (A). Although natural barriers lessened trade, the Shang carried out some trade with South Asia and Southwest Asia (B). A number of cities arose in China under the Shang (D).

7 . A The rugged Andean terrain hindered political unity. Early South American societies were organized into local governments (A) and knew the use of copper (B). Trade with the north was limited because of geographical barriers (C), preventing South American societies from building upon the traditions of Mesoamerica (D).

8 . B The legend of Quetzalcóatl diffused throughout early Mesoamerican cultures and civilizations. The invention of the wheel (A) was an independent contribution of the Sumerians. The cultivation of potatoes (C) was limited to the early Andean societies and civilizations. Harappan sewage systems (D) were unique to the people of the Indus valley civilization.

PERIOD 1 Summary: Technological and Environmental Transformations (to c. 600 BCE)

Timeline

Key Comparisons

1. Early agriculture in the Eastern Hemisphere versus the Western Hemisphere

2. Pastoral nomadism versus settled lifestyles

3. Political, economic, and social characteristics of the four river valley civilizations

4. Early civilizations of the Eastern and Western hemispheres

Change/Continuity Chart

Rise of Classical Civilizations

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Classical civilizations, defined as those that had enduring influence over vast numbers of people, emerged in China, India, and the Mediterranean region. The first of the classical civilizations began in China. Three Chinese dynasties made their mark on the values of traditional Chinese civilization—the Zhou, the Qin, and the Han. In India, the rulers of the Gupta dynasty ushered in the golden age of Indian history. The classical Mediterranean civilizations of Greece and Rome developed political, scientific, and philosophical thought that formed the basis of Western civilization.

Key Terms

An asterisk ( *) denotes items listed in the glossary.

Alexander the Great

aristocracy*

Aristotle

artisan*

democracy*

dynasty*

geocentric theory*

Hellenistic Age*

Indo-Europeans*

mystery religion*

Pax Romana *

polis *

sati *

Silk Roads*

stoicism*

Twelve Tables*

Zoroastrianism*

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Classical China

The Zhou

Claiming that they possessed the mandate of heaven, or the approval of the gods, the Zhou began to dominate China after the fall of the Shang dynasty. The mandate of heaven would be claimed by future Chinese dynasties as a rationalization for their authority to rule. In power from 1029 to 258 BCE, the Zhou:

• Took steps to further centralize the Chinese government.

• Expanded Chinese territory to include the Yangtze River valley. This southern river valley added a fertile rice-growing area to the already rich wheat-producing regions of northern China.

• Produced emperors, calling themselves “Sons of Heaven,” who lived lives of luxury.

• Standardized the spoken language.

The Qin

After a period of civil disorder known as the Era of the Warring States, the Zhou were replaced by the Qin dynasty. Under the Qin (221–202 BCE):

• The name of the dynasty, Qin, was applied to the country of China.

• Chinese territory expanded southward as far as northern Vietnam.

• A defensive wall that became the nucleus of the Great Wall was constructed.

• Weights, measures, and coinage were standardized.

• A common written language was standardized.

• The manufacture of silk cloth was encouraged.

• New roads were constructed.

The Han

In 200 BCE, the Qin were replaced by the Han, who ruled until 220 CE. During the rule of the Han dynasty:

• The governmental bureaucracy (ranks of employees) grew stronger.

• Chinese territory expanded into Central Asia, Korea, and Indochina.

• The Chinese civil service exam began.

• Trade along the Silk Roads increased.

• A time of peace settled across China.

• Chinese traditions were reinforced through the strengthening of patriarchal society in which the father and other male members of the family were in positions of authority.

• The government oversaw iron production.

• The government sponsored and maintained canals and irrigation systems.

• Society was further stratified, consisting of an elite class (including the educated governmental bureaucracy), peasants and artisans , and unskilled laborers (including a small number of slaves).

• Agriculture was improved by the invention of ox-drawn plows and a collar that prevented choking in draft animals.

• Paper was manufactured for the first time.

• Water-powered mills were invented.

Under the Han, the people of China enjoyed a level of culture significantly more advanced than that of other civilizations and societies at that time, a distinction it would maintain until the fifteenth century. So vital were the accomplishments of the Han to Chinese culture that even today the Chinese call themselves the “People of Han.”

Classical India

The cultural and social structures of the Vedic and Epic ages formed the basis of the classical civilization of India. Around 600 BCE, northern India was divided into sixteen states; one state, Magadha, became prominent. In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedonia reached into the Indian subcontinent as far as the Indus River, where he set up a border state, which he called Bactria. Five years later the Mauryan dynasty was founded by a soldier named Chandragupta, an autocratic ruler who developed a large bureaucracy and a large army in addition to promoting trade and communication. Mauryan rulers were the first to unify most of the Indian subcontinent.

The most prominent of the Mauryan rulers was Ashoka (269–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta. Under Ashoka, all of the Indian subcontinent except for the southern tip came under Mauryan control. Known for the brutality of his conquests, Ashoka later moderated his behavior and values, embracing the tolerance and nonviolence of Buddhism while also respecting the values of Hinduism. Like his grandfather Chandragupta, Ashoka encouraged trade and constructed an extensive system of roads, complete with rest areas for travelers. Along these roads, which connected with the Silk Roads, Ashoka spread the ideas of Buddhism.

Ashoka’s influence was insufficient to prevent India from dividing into a number of states once again after his death. Invaders from the northwest, the Kushans, ruled India until 220 CE. Their rule was followed in 320 CE by the Guptas, who ushered in the golden age of Indian history.

Gupta India

In contrast to the Mauryans, the Gupta rulers were Hindus. As a result, during Gupta rule, the caste system and the influence of the Brahmins were reinforced. Because of the strict divisions of the caste system, slavery was not widespread. Although Hinduism was the religion of the ruling dynasty, Buddhism was tolerated and Buddhist monks and nuns spread their influence through urban monasteries. The Gupta style of rule was not as centralized as that of the Mauryan Empire, and local rulers were permitted to maintain authority in their respective territories if they submitted to the ultimate rule of the Guptas. Other accomplishments and features of the Gupta dynasty included:

• High-towered temples in honor of the Hindu gods.

• Lavish wall paintings in caves dedicated to the gods. A key example is the Caves of Ajanta in central India.

• The growth of Sanskrit as the language of the educated.

• The discovery of zero as a place holder and the development of “Arabic” numerals, the number system used throughout most of the world today. An innovation of Gupta India, Arabic numerals were so called by the Western world because they were carried from India to the West by means of Arabic caravans.

• The development of the decimal system.

• The strengthening of trade, especially between East and Southeast Asia.

• The deterioration in the status of women; society became increasingly patriarchal. Women gradually lost their right to inherit or own property and were married at a younger age. The custom of sati was practiced in some parts of India. Sati involved the practice of a widow throwing herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. The custom was alleged to bestow honor and purity upon the widow.

• Inoculation against smallpox and sterilization during surgery and in the treatment of wounds.

• Knowledge of plastic surgery and the setting of bones.

• Advances in astronomy such as the prediction of eclipses and the identification of planets.

• The classic Hindu temple complete with courtyards, paintings, and sculptures appeared.

The achievements and knowledge of the Gupta remained part of Indian culture long after the decline of their dynasty.

Persia and the Classical World

Before turning to a discussion of classical Mediterranean civilization, it is necessary to discuss one of the cultures that would significantly influence Mediterranean societies: that of the Persians. The Persians (inhabiting a territory approximate to present-day Iran) counted among the heirs of ancient Mesopotamian civilization. In 550 BCE, the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great had established an empire that encompassed the northern part of Southwest Asia and a portion of northwestern India. The Persian empire was noted for its tolerance toward the customs of conquered peoples. The Persians introduced a new religion called Zoroastrianism that held to a belief in a system of rewards and punishments in the afterlife. They spread the knowledge of iron metallurgy throughout their empire and engaged in an active long-distance trade that linked India, Southwest Asia, and Egypt. The Persian Royal Road, complete with relay stations, was a 1600-mile highway linking remote portions of the empire. Persian trade contacts with Greece encouraged artistic and philosophical exchange as well.

Classical Civilization in the Mediterranean: Greece

In addition to the role played by the Persians, the culture of a number of societies in the Mediterranean blended to bring about the civilization of Greece. The island of Crete southeast of the Greek mainland was in contact with the Egyptian civilization by the year 2000 BCE. The early Greek civilization, known as Mycenaea, was influenced by that of Crete through contacts with traders in the region. The Greeks were an Indo-European people who migrated to the southern portion of the Greek peninsula about 1700 BCE. A second wave of Indo-Europeans called the Dorians invaded about 1100 BCE, destroying the Mycenaean civilization.

About 800 BCE, Phoenician mariners sailed into the Aegean Sea to the east of the Greek mainland. The Phoenicians were largely a seafaring people whose need for accurate recordkeeping in their commercial transactions led them to develop an alphabet of 22 letters representing consonants. The Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, adding symbols for vowel sounds to give the people of the Greek peninsula a common language.

Importance of Geography

Geography was an important determining factor in the course of Greek history. Separated by mountains and hills, the Greek peninsula was left with little available farmland. At the same time, the peninsula’s irregular coastline provided relatively easy access to the sea for Greek settlements. Fishing and trading in the waters of the Aegean became another source to increase the supply of food and other products the Greeks could not provide themselves.

The City-State

The rugged terrain also prevented the easy centralization of communities or government. Greek political organization was based on the city-state, or polis , consisting of a city and the surrounding countryside, both under the influence of one government. The two most prominent city-states were Sparta and Athens. Sparta’s aristocratic government focused on creating a strong military state, which depended upon the labor of slaves. Athens, by contrast, was initially an aristocracy, but gradually allowed its inhabitants self-rule. The height of Athenian democracy occurred during the rule of the aristocrat Pericles (443 to 429 BCE), and was also considered the golden age of Athens for its achievements in science, philosophy, and the arts. Whereas Sparta’s economic life relied on agriculture, the Athenians relied on the sea for their livelihood and engaged in an active trade across the Aegean. The people of Athens, to whom education and artistic expression were important, also depended heavily on slaves. From 500 to 449 BCE, Athens and Sparta joined forces to defeat a series of Persian invasions.

After the Persian Wars, Athens grew from a polis to an empire. Its dominant status aroused distrust among other poleis, including Sparta. From 431 to 404 BCE, Athens and Sparta and their allies fought each other for dominance in the Peloponnesian Wars. When Athens suffered a devastating plague during the course of the war, the once proud and flourishing polis questioned why its gods had allowed such a great tragedy. The weakened Athens saw defeat at the hands of Sparta.

During the eighth century BCE, the population of the Greek city-states increased tremendously, leading the Greeks to seek additional territory. As a result, the Greeks established a number of colonies in Sicily, southern Italy, the eastern Mediterranean, and the Black Sea. These new settlements allowed the Greeks the opportunity to trade grapes and olive oil for products that their rugged terrain could not produce in sufficient quantities, including fish, grain, and honey. Colonies not only served as outlets for population; they also transmitted Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean world.

Culture of Classical Greece

Throughout the classical period, the various Greek city-states, although often rivals, at the same time shared a common culture. Numerous gods and goddesses, who often displayed human characteristics, formed the basis of Greek religion. The Olympic Games, first held in 776 BCE, brought together athletes from across the Greek peninsula to honor their gods. Drama was an integral feature of Greek culture; tragedies explored the relationship between the limitations of humans and the expectations of the gods, whereas comedies often satirized public officials.

Greek philosophy emphasized the power of human reason. The philosopher Aristotle wrote on a variety of subjects in politics, arts, and the sciences and became a model of Greek thought by constructing arguments through the use of logic.

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age

When the Greek city-states, or poleis, weakened because of their internal conflict in the Peloponnesian War, they captured the attention of Philip, the ruler of the kingdom of Macedon to the north of Greece. When Philip’s plans to conquer the Greek poleis were cut short by his death, however, his son Alexander stepped in to carry out his father’s ambitions. By the time of his death in 323 BCE at the age of 33, Alexander (known as “The Great”) had conquered not only the Greek poleis but also Egypt, Syria, and Palestine as well as Persia. In South Asia, Alexander proceeded as far as the Punjab across the Indus River when his troops refused to proceed any farther.

Throughout the territories he controlled, Alexander established cities, many named Alexandria in his honor. In order to blend the cultures of Persia and Greece, he married a Persian woman and encouraged his officers to do the same. On his death, however, Alexander’s empire was divided among his generals. In spite of these divisions, a relative balance of power was maintained among the remnants of Alexander’s former empire as the Greek culture served as its unifying force.

The period of Alexander’s rule and that of his generals has been termed the Hellenistic Age , named after the influence of the Hellenes, as the Greeks called themselves. The Hellenistic Age was characterized by a blend of the cultures of Greece and the Middle East, particularly Persia. Long-distance trade flourished, establishing communications from the Greek homeland to parts of South Asia and North Africa. Hellenistic philosophy sought personal satisfaction and tranquility. The most popular school of Hellenistic philosophy was stoicism . Stoicism taught that men and women should use their powers of reason to lead virtuous lives and to assist others. Mystery religions taught that believers who followed their practices would be rewarded with a blissful life in the afterworld. The culture of the Hellenistic world would be adopted by another classical Mediterranean culture, that of the Romans. Among the achievements of the Hellenistic world were:

• Euclidean geometry

• Pythagorean Theorem

• Studies of human anatomy and physiology by Galen

• Calculation of the circumference of the earth by Eratosthenes

In spite of the significant achievements of scientists and mathematicians of the Hellenistic world, one significant error was promoted during the same era. Contrary to the traditions of Southwest Asia, the Hellenistic astronomer Ptolemy expounded a theory of the nature of the universe which placed the earth at its center. His geocentric theory , although incorrect, was widely accepted as truth by the West until the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century.

Classical Civilization in the Mediterranean: Rome

The Hellenistic period ended in 146 BCE with the conquest of the Greek peninsula by Rome. Rome began as a kingdom in central Italy about 800 BCE. In 509 BCE, the Roman monarch was deposed by the aristocracy . The resulting Roman republic began a period of expansion in the Mediterranean world. The defeat of the Phoenician city of Carthage in North Africa during the Punic Wars (264–246 BCE) made Rome master of the Mediterranean Sea. The strong military tradition of the Romans led to power struggles among generals. When one of them, Julius Caesar, came to power in 45 BCE, the structures of the Roman republic began to dissolve.

Rome Becomes an Empire

When a conspiracy assassinated Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, a period of civil disorder followed, which culminated in 27 BCE with the rule of Octavian, or Augustus Caesar, the grandnephew of Julius Caesar. The period from 27 BCE to 180 CE was known as the Pax Romana , or Roman Peace. During this more than 200-year period of peace and prosperity:

• A system of public works, including bridges, aqueducts, and roads, served all parts of the empire. Roman roads and sea lanes connected the Roman Empire with the Silk Roads of Central Asia.

• Highway banditry decreased.

• A common language, Latin, promoted unity within the empire.

• A common coinage facilitated trade.

• Stadiums were constructed to provide entertainment, such as gladiator contests, for Roman citizens.

• Jesus was born in the Roman province of Judea. The new religion of Christianity spread easily, in part because of the Roman roads.

Roman Government

During the days of the Roman republic, government was centered around the Senate, which was composed primarily of members of the aristocracy. The executive resided in two consuls. When crises occurred, the Senate could appoint a dictator who could hold emergency powers for a period of up to six months. During the republic, laws were codified, or written down, in the Twelve Tables .

Under the Roman Empire, conquered peoples in various parts of the empire were generally allowed a considerable measure of self-rule unless they rebelled against the authority of the emperor. Many inhabitants in conquered provinces, especially those geographically close to Rome, were granted citizenship.

Roman Law

The most lasting contribution of Rome was its system of laws. From the tradition of the Twelve Tables came a desire to extend Roman standards of justice throughout the empire. Among the legal principles established by the Romans were:

• The concept that a defendant is innocent unless proven guilty by a court of law

• The right of defendants to confront their accusers in a court of law

• The right of judges to set aside laws that were unjust

Roman law served to unite not only the peoples of the vast empire, but also left a lasting impact on Western legal tradition.

Roman Culture

Much of the culture of the Romans was adopted from that of the Greeks. The Greek alphabet, a gift of the Phoenicians, was passed on to the Romans, who modified the letters and transmitted the alphabet throughout the various parts of their empire. Many aspects of Greek rational thought, including the works of Aristotle and the philosophical school of Stoicism, became part of Roman life. Greek gods and goddesses, renamed by the Romans, found their way into Roman religious beliefs. Although the Romans were credited with the development of massive arches designed to handle the weight of heavy structures, the architecture of Rome was more a case of cultural diffusion from the Greeks than one of independent invention.

Everyday Life in Greece and Rome

In both classical Mediterranean societies, families were patriarchal, although women in the elite classes of Rome often wielded considerable influence within the family itself. In both Greece and Rome, women sometimes owned property and small businesses. In matters of law, however, women had fewer rights than men. Even Aristotle felt that women should be kept in a subordinate role.

Slavery was commonplace in both Greece and Rome. Aristotle attempted to justify slavery, believing that it was necessary to a thriving society. In some Greek poleis , such as Sparta, slaves performed agricultural tasks. In Athens, slaves labored in the silver mines and as household servants. Roman slaves made up as much as one-third of the population. In fact, among the reasons for Roman expansion was the acquisition of slaves from among conquered peoples. Some Roman slaves were used to mine iron and precious metals. Other slaves carried out household duties. Especially prized were educated Greek slaves, who became tutors for the children of Rome’s elite class. Slave labor was so widely used by both Greeks and Romans that neither culture found much need for technological advances as labor-saving devices. As a result, the Mediterranean world fell behind the technological level of China and India in the areas of agriculture and manufacturing.

American Civilization

The Maya civilization of the Yucatán Peninsula and present-day Guatemala and Belize reached its height about 300 CE, building on the cultural traditions of the societies of Mesoamerica. Termed the “Greeks of the Americas” because of their exploration of numerous branches of learning, the Maya:

• Developed a system of writing based on pictographs, or glyphs

• Understood the value of zero as a placeholder

• Studied astronomy and predicted eclipses

• Calculated the length of the year within a few seconds of its actual length

The Mayan political organization consisted of small city-states ruled by kings who often fought against one another. Prisoners of war usually ended up as slaves or as sacrifices to the Mayan gods.

To the north of the Mayan homeland, in the Valley of Mexico, the grand and heavily populated city of Teotihuacán featured pyramids, public buildings decorated with murals, and active marketplaces. The city also served as a center of long-distance trade with coastal peoples and Mayans. To the south of Mayan lands, the Mochica people established cities in the central Andes during the first millennium CE. Inhabitants of these cities cooperated to construct irrigation systems.

Rapid Review

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Classical civilizations in China, India, and the Mediterranean forged lasting institutions in their respective regions. China created a complex bureaucracy based on the traditions of family and education. In India, cultural diversity prevailed while a caste system gradually evolved to rigidly organize this diversity. In the Mediterranean, rational thought and the rule of law prevailed during the dominance of the Greeks followed by the Romans.

Review Questions

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1 . All of the following Chinese traditions and achievements began under the Han dynasty EXCEPT

  (A) expansion into Central Asia

  (B) paper manufacture

  (C) the civil service exam

  (D) Confucian philosophy

2 . The Mayan civilization

  (A) was a byproduct of cultural diffusion from earlier Mesoamerican societies

  (B) had a stratified society

  (C) developed a city-state political structure

  (D) all of the above

3 . From the time of the Roman republic to the Pax Romana

  (A) Rome became increasingly democratic

  (B) Roman civilization became increasingly weaker

  (C) the territory of Rome continued to expand

  (D) Roman citizenship became increasingly rare

4 . Under both the Han and Roman Empires

  (A) imperial roads were connected to the Silk Roads

  (B) new territories were added to the empires

  (C) a time of peace settled over both empires

  (D) all of the above

5 . The Hellenistic Empire of Alexander

  (A) continued the competition with Persia begun under the Greek poleis

  (B) was successful in curbing foreign influence upon Greece

  (C) produced theories that accurately explained the nature of the universe

  (D) blended Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures

6 . During the Gupta dynasty

  (A) Arabic numerals originated in India

  (B) slavery increased

  (C) Hinduism and Buddhism became the official religions of India

  (D) the government of India became more centralized

7 . The Persians

  (A) were noted for their harsh treatment toward conquered peoples

  (B) continued the traditions of ancient Mesopotamia

  (C) introduced a new religion similar to the structure of Hinduism

  (D) failed to establish a unified empire

8 . Greek society

  (A) was unified by the geography of the Greek peninsula

  (B) was disrupted by the conquest of Alexander

  (C) was extended through overseas colonization

  (D) extended the democratic ideal by relying on free labor alone

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D Confucian philosophy was introduced after the fall of the Zhou dynasty. The Han dynasty expanded Chinese territory, including adding territory from Central Asia (A). Paper manufacture was developed (B) and the civil service exam was (C) introduced under the Han.

2 . D The Mayans adopted their calendar, the cultivation of maize, the legend of Quetzalcóatl, and other features of earlier Mesoamerican civilizations (A). They had a society composed of several social classes (B) and organized their government around several local city-states (C).

3 . C The territory of the Roman Empire expanded greatly during this time period. Rome became less democratic as the empire evolved (A). The Pax Romana marked the height of Roman civilization; decline began after this period (B). During this period, inhabitants of nearby Roman provinces were offered citizenship (D).

4 . D All of the above. Roman roads connected to the Silk Roads, allowing trade between the Roman Empire and Han China (A). Both empires expanded significantly during their duration (B). Both experienced a time of relative peace when their respective cultures flourished (C).

5 . D Alexander united the cultures of both Greece and the Middle East, particularly Persia, in his empire. Competition between Greece and Persia, therefore, was not a characteristic of his empire (A). The nature of Alexander’s empire was to blend foreign cultures with that of the Greeks (B). Ptolemy embraced the geocentric view (C).

6 . A Arabic numerals originated in Gupta India but were given their name because they were carried to the Western world by Arab caravans. The Hindu caste system lessened the need for slavery (B). Although the Gupta tolerated Buddhism, they embraced Hinduism as their own religion and promoted its acceptance (C). The Indian government was less centralized under the Gupta than it had been under Mauryan rulers (D).

7 . B The Persian conquest of Mesopotamia continued the transmission of Mesopotamian culture. They were noted for tolerance toward conquered peoples who did not rebel against Persian rule (A). In contrast to Hinduism, the new religion of Zoroastrianism was a religion of rewards and punishments in the afterlife (C). The Persians unified their empire through the Royal Road (D).

8 . C Colonization spread the knowledge of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean world. The mountains of the Greek peninsula prevented Greeks from uniting (A). Alexander continued the traditions of Greece (B). Greek society relied heavily on slave labor (D).

Origins of World Belief Systems

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The period from 8000 BCE to 600 CE saw the beginnings of many of the world’s major belief systems. Both Hinduism and Buddhism originated in India. The philosophies of Confucianism and Daoism profoundly affected traditional Chinese culture. In the Middle East, the Hebrew faith gave the world the concept of monotheism . Christianity emerged from the Hebrew belief in a Messiah , or a savior from sin. Followers of Jesus as the Messiah spread their faith throughout the Roman world.

Key Terms

Analects

animism*

bodhisattvas *

Brahmin*

dharma *

disciple

Edict of Milan*

filial piety*

karma *

Messiah

moksha *

New Testament*

nirvana *

pope*

reincarnation*

shamanism*

yin and yang *

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Polytheism

Both nomadic and early agricultural peoples often held to a belief in many gods or goddesses, or polytheism. The ancient river valley civilizations in the Eastern Hemisphere, as well as the early civilizations in the Americas, believed in numerous gods and goddesses representing spirits or objects of nature. The Greeks and Romans also believed in an array of deities who represented natural phenomena but at the same time took on humanlike qualities. Some early peoples practiced a form of polytheism called animism , or a belief that gods and goddesses inhabited natural features. Animism was widespread among many societies in Africa and in the Pacific islands of Polynesia. Shamanism , a form of animism, expressed a belief in powerful natural spirits that were influenced by shamans, or priests. Shamanism remained a common practice in Central Asia and the Americas.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a belief system that originated in India from the literature, traditions, and class system of the Aryan invaders. In contrast to other world religions, Hinduism did not have a single founder. As a result, the precepts and values of Hinduism developed gradually and embraced a variety of forms of worship. Hinduism took the polytheistic gods of nature that had been central to the worship of the Brahmins , or priests, then changed their character to represent concepts.

According to Hindu belief, everything in the world is part of a divine essence called Brahma. The spirit of Brahma enters gods or different forms of one god. Two forms of the Hindu deity are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. A meaningful life is one that has found union with the divine soul. Hinduism holds that this union is achieved through reincarnation , or the concept that after death the soul enters another human or an animal. The person’s good or evil deeds in his or her personal life is that person’s karma . Those who die with good karma may be reincarnated into a higher caste, whereas those with evil karma might descend to a lower caste or become an animal. If the soul lives a number of good lives, it is united with the soul of Brahma. Upon achieving this unification, or moksha , the soul no longer experiences worldly suffering.

Hinduism goes beyond a mystical emphasis to effect the everyday conduct of its followers. The moral law, or dharma , serves as a guide to actions in this world. Dharma emphasizes that human actions produce consequences and that each person has obligations to the family and community.

The Hindu religion reinforced the Indian caste system, offering hope for an improved lifestyle in the next life, especially for members of the lower castes. Those of the upper castes were encouraged by the prospect of achieving moksha. Hinduism also extended the Aryan custom of venerating cattle by considering cattle as sacred and forbidding the consumption of beef.

In time, Hinduism became the principal religion of India. Carried by merchants through the waters of the Indian Ocean, Hindu beliefs also spread to Southeast Asia, where they attracted large numbers of followers. During the first century CE, there were already signs of Indian influence in the societies of the islands of the Indian Ocean and in the Malay peninsula. Some rulers in present-day Vietnam and Cambodia adopted the Sanskrit language of India as a form of written communication.

Buddhism

The second major faith to originate in India was Buddhism. In contrast to Hinduism, Buddhism had a founder in an Indian prince named Gautama, born about 563 BCE. Troubled by the suffering in the world, Gautama spent six years fasting and meditating on its cause. After he determined that suffering was the consequence of human desire, he began traveling to spread his beliefs. At this time Gautama became known as “Buddha,” or the “enlightened one.”

Although later followers would consider Buddha a god, Buddha did not see himself as a deity. Rather, he stressed the existence of a divine essence. Buddhism sought self-control and stressed the equal treatment of peoples from all walks of life. The Buddhist faith, therefore, opposed the caste system.

Buddhism shared with Hinduism the concept of reincarnation but in a different perspective. Buddhist belief held that a series of reincarnations would lead the faithful follower to ever higher levels toward the ultimate goal, which was nirvana , or a union with the divine essence.

The popularity of Buddhism emerged from its acceptance of men and women from all ranks of society. At first Buddhism spread through the efforts of monks and nuns who established religious communities in northern India. Located along trade routes, Buddhist monasteries served as lodging for traders, who learned of the teachings of Buddhism through contact with Buddhist monks and nuns. Contact with Hellenistic culture produced the Gandhara Buddhas, a syncretic sculpture combining the symbol of the Buddha with the exaltation of the human body typical of Hellenistic culture. In time, merchants carried the doctrines of Buddhism along the Silk Roads and other trade routes. Initially, Buddhist popularity was strengthened when the Mauryan emperor Ashoka adopted its beliefs. The faith, however, did not enjoy a long-term period of popularity in India because of opposition from Hindu Brahmins and the later promotion of Hinduism by Gupta emperors. Buddhism spread along the trade routes to become popular in Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and China. In China, Buddhism blended with Confucianism to reinforce the concept of patriarchal families. As it spread to other locales, Buddhism developed the belief of bodhisattvas , which held that, through meditation, ordinary people could reach nirvana .

Confucianism

Out of the disorder of the Era of Warring States after the fall of the Zhou dynasty came a number of philosophies designed to create order in China. Among these philosophies was Confucianism, named after its founder Confucius, or Kúng Fu-tse (551–478 BCE). Confucius believed that the source of good government was in the maintenance of tradition; tradition, in turn, was maintained by personal standards of virtue. These included respect for the patriarchal family (filial piety ) and veneration of one’s ancestors.

Confucius also believed that governmental stability depended on well-educated officials. To this end, he required his followers to study history and literature from the Zhou dynasty to determine the value of these subjects for government officials. Some of the students of Confucius compiled his sayings into the Analects , a work which also served to educate the Chinese bureaucracy or government officials. The Han dynasty appreciated Confucian philosophy because it supported order and submission to the government. The civil service examination that developed during the Han dynasty was based on the Analects and the course of study developed by Confucius. The Confucian values of veneration of one’s ancestors and respect for the patriarchal family, as well as good government staffed by a responsible, well-educated bureaucracy, became basic traditions that defined Chinese culture.

Daoism

Another philosophy that developed in response to the Era of Warring States was Daoism. Its founder was Lao-zi (or Lao-tsu), who is believed to have lived during the fifth century BCE. The philosophy adapted traditional Chinese concepts of balance in nature, or yin (female, submissive) and yang (male, assertive). According to Daoist philosophy, human understanding comes from following “The Way,” a life force which exists in nature.

In contrast to the Confucian respect for education and for orderly government, Daoism taught that political involvement and education were unnecessary. Rather, in time, the natural balance of the universe would resolve most problems. Chinese thought and practice gradually blended both Confucianism and Daoism to include a concern for responsibility for the community and time for personal reflection.

Judaism

Unlike other religions of the period, notably Buddhism and Christianity, Judaism was not a missionary religion. Although the Jews had lived in Babylon for 70 years, with some Jews remaining after most of the former captives returned to Babylon, they did little to attempt to convert non-Jews. From the Jewish faith, however, would come another major world religion: Christianity.

Christianity

A key element of Judaism was the belief that God had promised to send the Jews a Messiah , or a savior from their sins. Some of the early Jews felt that that promise was fulfilled when Jesus was born in the Roman province of Judea about 4 to 6 BCE. As an adult, Jesus and his 12 disciples , or followers, went throughout the land of Judea, preaching the forgiveness of sins. Jesus was also called Christ, meaning “anointed.” When Jesus’ teachings were feared as a threat to Roman and Jewish authority, he was tried and put to death by crucifixion.

The network of Roman roads facilitated the spread of Christianity throughout the empire. Missionaries, traders, and other travelers carried the Christian message of forgiveness of sins and an afterlife in heaven for those who believed in Jesus as their savior from sin. The greatest missionary of the early Christian church was Paul of Tarsus. A Roman citizen, he undertook three missionary journeys throughout the Roman Empire in the first century CE. Accounts of Jesus’ life in addition to the missionary efforts of Paul and other followers of Jesus are found in the New Testament of the Christian Bible.

Several Roman emperors considered Christianity a threat to their rule. Although some, such as Diocletian, persecuted the Christian church, it continued to grow. In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine changed the position of earlier Roman emperors regarding Christianity. In the Edict of Milan he permitted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 381 under Emperor Theodosius.

After its adoption as the state church of Rome, Christianity in the West began developing an organization under the leadership of the bishop of Rome, or pope . In addition to priests who served local churches, monks and nuns withdrew from society to devote their time to prayer and meditation. As it spread throughout the Roman world, Christianity gained popularity because of its appeal to all social classes, especially the poor. Women received new status as Christianity taught that men and women were equal in matters of faith. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Christianity spread to northern Europe, the Balkans, and Russia.

Rapid Review

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Although polytheism was the most common religious belief among early agricultural and nomadic peoples, a number of major belief systems arose before 600 CE. Monotheism was the gift of Judaism, which, in turn, became the source of the Christian religion. In India, two faiths—Hinduism and Buddhism—emerged from the diverse social structure of South Asia. In China, Confucianism and Daoism blended family and political order with the balance of nature to define Chinese philosophical thought.

Review Questions

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1 . Both Hinduism and Buddhism

  (A) supported the caste system

  (B) revered women

  (C) became increasingly popular in India

  (D) none of the above

2 . Christianity

  (A) remained a religion of the Roman Empire

  (B) taught the forgiveness of sins through faith in Jesus

  (C) was not a missionary religion

  (D) failed to utilize the public works of the Roman Empire

3 . Confucianism and early Buddhism

  (A) became the dominant philosophy of their respective regions

  (B) emphasized the importance of effective government

  (C) included a belief in nirvana

  (D) did not believe that their founders were gods

4 . Daoism and Confucianism

  (A) agreed on the importance of education

  (B) disagreed on the need for personal reflection

  (C) taught that active political involvement was essential to a stable society

  (D) based their teachings on Chinese traditions

5 . The Silk Roads were especially instrumental in the spread of

  (A) Confucianism

  (B) Daoism

  (C) Buddhism

  (D) Judaism

6 . During the period of the late Roman Empire, Christianity

  (A) experienced a change in its official status

  (B) declined in numbers because of persecutions

  (C) became less organized as the empire fell

  (D) appealed primarily to elite classes

7 . Hinduism

  (A) was based on traditions of the Harappan civilization

  (B) addressed the consequences of one’s behavior

  (C) offered no hope for members of lower castes

  (D) gained little acceptance outside India

8 . Buddhism

  (A) was the adopted faith of Gupta rulers

  (B) opposed Confucian ideals of patriarchal families

  (C) changed over time from transmission by traders to its spread through the services of monasteries

  (D) changed over time to teach that common people could reach nirvana

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D None of the above. Whereas Hinduism supported the caste system, Buddhism did not (A). Buddhism showed respect for women; Hinduism did not (B). Only Hinduism became increasingly popular in India (C).

2 . B Forgiveness of sins was a central teaching of Christianity. Christianity spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire to Africa and Asia (A). Christian missionaries, especially Paul of Tarsus, actively promoted their faith (C). Missionary efforts were facilitated by the system of Roman roads (D).

3 . D Neither Confucius nor Buddha believed himself to be a god. Later Buddhists, however, sometimes deified Buddha. Although Confucianism became the dominant philosophy throughout most of Chinese history, Buddhism lost popularity to Hinduism (A). Only Confucianism emphasized the importance of effective government (B). The concept of nirvana was a Buddhist belief only (C).

4 . D Confucianism embraced the traditions of centralization of government and veneration of ancestors, whereas Daoism used the concepts of yin and yang to explain its teachings. Confucianism stressed the importance of education (A), whereas Daoism taught personal reflection (B). Confucianism encouraged active political involvement (C).

5 . C Buddhism was spread primarily by traders who followed the Silk Roads. Confucianism (A) spread to Korea and Japan, areas not included in the Silk Roads. Daoism (B) was essentially a Chinese philosophy. Judaism (D) remained a faith of the Middle East and of Jewish diaspora communities; it was not a religion that actively sought converts.

6 . A During the late Roman Empire, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Persecution only increased its numbers (B). During the latter days of the empire, the Christian religion was acquiring a detailed organization from parish priest to pope (C). The new religion appealed to members of all classes, especially the poor (D).

7 . B Hinduism held its followers responsible for their actions. It was based on the traditions of the Aryan society (A). Offering lower classes the hope of reaching moksha (C), Hinduism became popular in Southeast Asia as well as India (D).

8 . D The Buddhist belief of bodhisattvas, developed after the faith spread out from India, taught that common people could reach nirvana . Hinduism was adopted by the Gupta (A). In China, Buddhism eventually blended with Confucianism to support the concept of patriarchal families (B). Over time, Buddhism changed from spreading through contacts with Buddhist monasteries to being spread by traders (C).

Interactions in the Late Classical Period

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The classical period came to an end with the weakening and fall of the empires of Rome, Han China, and Gupta India to invaders. The fall of the three great classical empires showed a number of similarities. At the same time, the late classical period featured increased interactions among the classical empires and other peoples of Asia, the Indian Ocean basin, and the Mediterranean world.

Key Terms

Hsiung-nu

Huns

latifundia *

Silk Roads*

White huns

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Han China

The Han dynasty of China began to decline around 100 CE. Among the causes of its decline were:

• Heavy taxes levied on peasants

• Decline of interest in Confucian intellectual goals

• Poor harvests

• Population decline from epidemic disease

• Social unrest, particularly by students

• Decline in morality

• Weak emperors and the increased influence of army generals

• Unequal land distribution

• Decline in trade

• Pressure from bordering nomadic tribes

As political, economic, and social decay befell Han China, Daoism gained a new popularity. In 184 CE, the Yellow Turbans, a Daoist revolutionary movement, promised a new age of prosperity and security which would be initiated by magic. Buddhism also spread as Chinese cultural unity was dissolving.

The decay of the Han Empire made it difficult for the Chinese to resist nomadic invaders living along their borders. These invaders, or Hsiung-nu , had for decades been raiding Han China, prompting the Chinese to pay them tribute to prevent further invasions. By 220 CE, however, Han China’s strength had deteriorated to the point that it could no longer repel a final thrust by the invading Hsiung-nu, who then poured into the empire. The fall of Han China was followed by centuries of disorder and political decentralization until Chinese rulers in the northern part of the country drove out the invaders. In 589 CE, the Sui dynasty ascended to power and continued to establish order in China. In spite of significant threats to Chinese civilization, it did ultimately survive. Confucian tradition endured among the elite classes, and the nomads eventually assimilated into Chinese culture.

Rome

The golden age of Rome—the Pax Romana —came to a close with the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE. Historians have noted a number of causes of the decline and fall of Rome including:

• Ineffective later emperors concerned more with a life of pleasure than a desire to rule wisely

• Influence of army generals

• Decline of trade

• Increasingly high taxes

• Decreased money flow into the empire as conquests of new territory ceased

• Population decline as a result of epidemic disease

• Poor harvests

• Unequal land distribution

• Social and moral decay and lack of interest in the elite classes

• Roman dependence on slave labor

• Recruitment of non-Romans into the Roman army

• Vastness of the empire, rendering it difficult to rule

• Barbarian invasions

Attempts to Save the Roman Empire

As the Roman Empire declined economically, small landowners were frequently forced to sell their land to the owners of large estates, or latifundia . The self-sufficiency of the latifundia lessened the need for a central authority such as the Roman emperor. Furthermore, the economic self-sufficiency of the estates discouraged trade among the various parts of the empire and neighboring peoples. The decline in trade eventually produced a decline in urban population.

Some emperors tried desperately to save the empire. Diocletian (ruled 284 to 305 CE) imposed stricter control over the empire and declared himself a god. When the Christians refused to worship him, Diocletian heightened persecutions against them. The Emperor Constantine (ruled 312 to 337) established a second capital at Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Converting to Christianity, Constantine allowed the practice of the faith in Rome. Although the Western portion of the empire steadily declined, the eastern portion, centered around Constantinople, continued to thrive and carry on a high volume of long-distance trade.

The last measure that weakened the Western Roman Empire originated in the steppes of Central Asia. In the fifth century CE, the nomadic Huns began migrating south and west in search of better pasturelands. The movement of the Huns exerted pressure on Germanic tribes who already lived around the border of the Roman Empire. These tribes, in turn, overran the Roman borders. By 425 CE, several Germanic kingdoms were set up within the empire; by 476 CE, the last Western Roman emperor was replaced by a Germanic ruler from the tribe of the Visigoths.

The eastern portion of the empire did not fall at the same time as the Western empire. One reason for its endurance was that it saw less pressure from invaders. Located on the Bosporus, it was the hub of numerous trade routes and a center of art and architecture. Neighboring empires—most notably the Parthians and, after 227 CE, the Sassanids—served as trade facilitators. Not only did they preserve the Greek culture, but they continued to bring Indian and Chinese goods and cultural trends to the eastern, or Byzantine, empire. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian (ruled 527 to 565 CE) attempted to capture portions of Rome’s lost territory. Justinian’s efforts were largely in vain, however, as the Western empire increasingly fragmented into self-sufficient estates and tiny Germanic kingdoms. Trade and learning declined, and cities shrank in size. The centralized government of Rome was replaced by rule based on the tribal allegiances of the Germanic invaders.

Gupta India

The fall of Gupta India to invading forces was less devastating than that of Han China or Rome. By 500 CE, Gupta India endured a number of invasions by the White Huns , nomadic peoples who may have been related to the Huns whose migrations drove Germanic peoples over the borders of the Roman Empire. Simultaneously, the influence of Gupta rulers was in decline as local princes became more powerful. Until about 600 CE, the nomads drove farther into central India. India fragmented into regional states ruled by the princes, who called themselves Rajput.

Although political decline occurred as a result of invasions, traditional Indian culture continued. Buddhism became less popular, while Hinduism added to its number of followers. Traditional Indian culture met another challenge after 600 CE in the form of the new religion of Islam.

Other Contacts with Classical Civilizations

Although the civilizations of Han China, Gupta India, Greece, and Rome dominated world history during the classical period, other societies and civilizations came into contact with and were influenced by them. Indian merchants drew the people of Southeast Asia into long-distance trade patterns. Contacts between India and Southeast Asia were further broadened by the spread of Buddhism and Hinduism from India to Southeast Asia.

Trade contacts also drew Africa into the classical Mediterranean world. South of Egypt lay the kingdom of Kush. The Kushites had long admired Egyptian culture and adapted their own writing system from Egyptian hieroglyphics. Kush also was a center of the independent invention of iron smelting. About 750 BCE, as Egypt weakened, Kush conquered Egypt. Kush, in turn, was defeated by the Christian kingdom of Axum about 300 CE. Axum and its rival, the kingdom of Ethiopia, traded with parts of the Roman Empire along the eastern Mediterranean. Greek merchants had carried Christianity to Ethiopia in the fourth century CE.

Silk Road Trade

One of the most far-reaching of the contacts between classical civilizations and other societies was the contact of the pastoral nomads of Central Asia with established societies. Central Asian herders often served as trade facilitators along the famed Silk Roads that linked trade between China and urban areas in Mesopotamia in the last millennium BCE. During the time of the Roman Empire, the Silk Roads were extended to the Mediterranean world. Named for their most prized trade commodity, the Silk Roads also were noted for the exchange of a variety of other goods between East and West. Nomadic peoples frequently supplied animals to transport goods along the Silk Roads. The Silk Roads served as an artery that transported not only trade goods but also religious beliefs, technology, and disease.

Indian Ocean Trade

The Silk Roads included not only land routes across Central Asia and Europe but also sea lanes in the Indian Ocean. Chinese pottery was traded along with Indian spices and ivory from India and Africa. The Indian Ocean trade network, which included the South China Sea, involved mariners from China, Malaysia, Southeast Asia, and Persia. Sailors used the seasonal monsoon winds to chart their course and carry out voyages that linked sections from East Africa to Southern China.

Trans-Saharan Trade

A third principal trade route in classical times was one across the Sahara. One of the most significant developments in the trade across the Sahara was the use of the camel and the development of the camel saddle. It is possible that the camel arrived in the Sahara from Arabia in the first century BCE. Early Saharan trade patterns included the exchange of salt and palm oil. During the days of the Roman Empire, North Africa also supplied Italy with olives and wheat, and with wild animals.

Rapid Review

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Although they ultimately fell to nomadic invaders, the classical civilizations of China, India, and the Mediterranean produced traditions that stamped an enduring mark on world cultures. Major world belief systems spread throughout Eurasia. The Silk Roads, Indian Ocean network, and trans-Saharan routes linked the Eastern Hemisphere to the foundations of a global trade network.

Review Questions

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1 . During the classical period, Africa

  (A) was cut off from global trade patterns

  (B) repelled Christian missionary efforts

  (C) lost contact with classical civilizations

  (D) saw new technology used in trans-Saharan travel

2 . The declining years of Han China and the Roman Empire shared all of the following EXCEPT

  (A) poor harvests

  (B) epidemic disease

  (C) attack by powerful neighboring states

  (D) unequal land distribution

3 . Attempts to save the Roman Empire from ruin included

  (A) the division of the latifundia

  (B) initial acceptance of Christianity followed by increased persecution

  (C) the emancipation of Roman slaves

  (D) the establishment of a new capital in the eastern empire

4 . The eastern portion of the Roman Empire

  (A) successfully restored the boundaries of the Western empire under Justinian

  (B) competed with the Parthians and Sassanids for trade

  (C) was a center of trade, art, and architecture

  (D) unlike the western portion, did not experience pressure from invaders

5 . The decline of Gupta India

  (A) saw the increased power of local princes

  (B) resulted in the decline of traditional Indian culture

  (C) unlike Rome, did not result in the fragmentation of the country

  (D) occurred without pressure from invading peoples

6 . Silk Road trade

  (A) flourished in spite of constant interferences from nomadic tribes

  (B) was confined to land routes across Asia

  (C) bypassed Mesopotamia

  (D) established links between the empires of Han China and Rome

7 . Indian Ocean trade

  (A) linked all areas of the Indian Ocean basin except Africa

  (B) saw mariners utilize the geographic forces of the Indian Ocean

  (C) declined with the fall of classical empires

  (D) failed to establish connections with land routes

8 . The decline of Han China

  (A) saw the end of Chinese established traditions

  (B) like Rome, saw invaders permanently dominate the empire

  (C) witnessed Daoism, rather than Confucianism, gaining popularity

  (D) resulted in the decline of Buddhism in China

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D The camel saddle was especially important to trans-Saharan trade during the classical era. Africa traded with Rome (C) and was connected to Indian Ocean trade (A). Christianity entered Axum and Ethiopia during this period (B).

2 . C Neither Han China nor the Roman Empire was attacked by powerful neighboring states. Both were invaded by tribal peoples from outside their borders. The remaining choices were common to both empires in their periods of decline.

3 . D In order to tap into the wealth of the eastern empire, Constantine established a new capital at Constantinople, the former Byzantium. During Rome’s decline the latifundia became larger, not smaller (A). Persecutions of Christians were followed by acceptance of the religion, then by official status under Theodosius (B). Romans continued to rely on slavery (C).

4 . C The Byzantine Empire was a cultural center. Justinian’s efforts were only partially successful in temporarily restoring some of the boundaries of Rome (A). The Parthians and Sassanids acted as trade facilitators (B). The eastern empire experienced some pressure from invaders, but not nearly to the extent that the western portion did (D).

5 . A After the fall of the Gupta dynasty, India was fragmented (C) into local principalities. Indian culture, however, remained intact (B), and Hinduism remained the dominant religion of India. Like Rome, Gupta India experienced pressure from invaders (D).

6 . D The Roman roads connected to the routes of the Silk Roads. Nomadic tribes often assisted travelers and traders along the Silk Roads, providing horses, camels, and supplies (A). The Silk Roads also embraced the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean (B) and went through Mesopotamia (C).

7 . B Mariners used the monsoon winds to facilitate travel in the Indian Ocean. Africa was connected to Indian Ocean trade (A). Trade in the Indian Ocean continued after the fall of classical empires, especially after the entry of Islam into the region (C). The waters of the Indian Ocean facilitated long-distance trade from China to Africa and connected with land routes from China to Rome (D).

8 . C Daoism enjoyed a resurgence of prosperity as Han China declined, whereas Confucianism declined in popularity. Although Chinese traditions suffered initially, they rebounded after the fall of the Han (A). Invaders eventually assimilated into the Chinese culture (B). Buddhism gained popularity in China after the fall of the Han (D).

PERIOD 2 Summary: Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies (c. 600 BCE to c. 600 CE)

Timeline

Key Comparisons

1. Political, economic, and social characteristics of the empires of Rome, Han China, and Gupta India

2. Exchanges in the Indian Ocean versus those in the Mediterranean Sea

3. The expansion and appeal of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity

4. The origins, philosophies, and goals of Confucianism and Daoism

5. The decline and fall of Han China, Rome, and Gupta India

6. Trans-Saharan versus Silk Roads trade

Change/Continuity Chart

Rise and Spread of Islam

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: As the empires that lent their grandeur to the classical period of early civilization fell into decline, the barren desert of the Arabian Peninsula witnessed the development of a belief system that evolved into a religious, political, and economic world system. Dar al-Islam, or the house of Islam, united sacred and secular institutions.

Key Terms

An asterisk ( *) denotes items listed in the glossary.

Allah *

arabesque

astrolabe*

Battle of Tours*

caliph*

Dar al-Islam *

Five Pillars*

Hadith *

hajj *

harem*

hijrah *

jihad *

Ka’aba*

Mamluks*

minaret *

mosque*

Muslim*

People of the Book*

Quran *

Ramadan*

shariah *

Shi’ite*

Shia‡

Sufis*

sultan*

Sunni*

umma *

zakat

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The World of Muhammad

The Arabian peninsula into which Muhammad was born in 570 was a hub of ancient caravan routes. Although the coastal regions of the peninsula were inhabited by settled peoples, the interior region provided a homeland for nomadic tribes called Bedouins. Located in the interior of the peninsula was the city of Mecca, which served both as a commercial center and as the location of a religious shrine for the polytheistic worship common to the nomadic peoples of the peninsula. Pilgrims were in the habit of visiting Mecca and its revered shrine, the Ka’aba , a cubic structure that housed a meteorite. The merchants of Mecca enjoyed a substantial profit from these pilgrims.

Muhammad, an orphan from the merchant class of Mecca, was raised by his grandfather and uncle. He married a wealthy local widow and businesswoman named Khadija. About 610 CE, Muhammad experienced the first of a number of revelations that he believed came from the archangel Gabriel. In these revelations he was told that there is only one God, called “Allah ” in Arabic. (Allah was one of the gods in the Arabic pantheon.) Although the peoples of the Arabian peninsula had already been exposed to monotheism through Jewish traders and Arabic converts to Christianity, Muhammad’s fervent proclamation of the existence of only one god angered the merchants of Mecca, who anticipated decreased profits from pilgrimages if the revelations of Muhammad were widely accepted. In 622 CE, realizing that his life was in danger, Muhammad and his followers fled to the city of Yathrib (later called Medina), about 200 miles northwest of Mecca. Here Muhammad was allowed to freely exercise his role as prophet of the new faith, and the numbers of believers in the new religion grew. The flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, called the hijrah , became the first year in the Muslim calendar.

In Medina, Muhammad oversaw the daily lives of his followers, organizing them into a community of believers known as the umma . The well-being of the umma included programs concerning all aspects of life, from relief for widows and orphans to campaigns of military defense.

In 629 CE, Muhammad and his followers journeyed to Mecca to make a pilgrimage to the Ka’aba, now incorporated as a shrine in the Islamic faith. The following year they returned as successful conquerors of the city, and in 632 CE, they again participated in the hajj . In 632 CE, Muhammad died without appointing a successor, an omission that would have a profound effect on the future of Islam.

The Teachings of Islam

The term Islam means “submission,” while the name Muslim , applied to the followers of Islam, means “one who submits.” Muhammad viewed his revelations as a completion of those of Judaism and Christianity and perceived himself not as a deity but as the last in a series of prophets of the one god, Allah . He considered Abraham, Moses, and Jesus also among the prophets of Allah . According to the teachings of Islam, the faithful must follow a set of regulations known as the Five Pillars . They include:

• Faith. In order to be considered a follower of Islam, a person must proclaim in the presence of a Muslim the following statement: “There is no god but Allah , and Muhammad is his prophet.”

• Prayer . The Muslim must pray at five prescribed times daily, each time facing the holy city of Mecca.

• Fasting . The faithful must fast from dawn to dusk during the days of the holy month of Ramadan , a commemoration of the first revelation to Muhammad.

• Alms-giving . The Muslim is to pay the zakat, or tithe for the needy.

• The hajj. At least once, the follower of Islam is required to make a pilgrimage to the Ka’aba in the holy city of Mecca. The faithful are released from this requirement if they are too ill or too poor to make the journey.

The revelations and teachings of Muhammad were not compiled into a single written document until after his death. The resulting Quran , or holy book of the Muslims, was completed in 650 CE. In addition, the sayings of Muhammad were compiled into the books of the Hadith . After the death of Muhammad the shariah , or moral law, was compiled. In addition to addressing issues of everyday life, the shariah established political order and provided for criminal justice.

Split Between the Sunni and the Shia

After the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, the umma chose Abu-Bakr, one of the original followers of Muhammad, as the first caliph , or successor to the prophet. The office of caliph united both secular and religious authority in the person of one leader. When the third caliph, Uthman of the Umayyad family, was assassinated, Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was appointed caliph. Soon controversy arose over his appointment. As time progressed, the disagreement became more pronounced, resulting in a split in the Muslim world that exists to the present. After the assassination of Ali in 661 CE, the Shia sect, believing that only a member of the family of Muhammad should serve as caliph, arose to support the descendants of Ali. The Sunni , who eventually became the largest segment of Islam, believed that the successor to the caliphate should be chosen from among the umma, or Muslim community, and accepted the earliest caliphs as the legitimate rulers of Islam.

The Early Expansion of Islam

Shortly after the death of Muhammad, the new religion of Islam embarked upon a rapid drive for expansion. Unlike the Buddhist and Christian religions, which expanded by means of missionary endeavor and commercial activity, Islam at first extended its influence by military conquest. Islam spread swiftly throughout portions of Eurasia and Africa:

• Within a year after the death of Muhammad, most of the Arabian Peninsula was united under the banner of Islam.

• Persia was conquered in 651 CE with the overthrow of the Sassanid dynasty.

• By the latter years of the seventh century, the new faith had reached Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt.

• At the same time, Islam extended into Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, where it competed with Buddhism.

• During the eighth century, Muslim armies reached present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco; Hindu-dominated northwest India; and the Iberian peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal).

The earliest Muslim conquerors were not as concerned with the spread of religious belief as they were with the extension of power for the Muslim leaders and people.

The Umayyad Caliphate

After the assassination of Ali in 661 CE, the Umayyad family came to power in the Islamic world. Establishing their capital at Damascus in Syria, the Umayyad were noted for the following:

• An empire that emphasized Arabic ethnicity over adherence to Islam.

• Inferior status assigned to converts to Islam.

• Respect for Jews and Christians as “People of the Book .” Although required to pay taxes for charity and on property, Jews and Christians were allowed freedom of worship and self-rule within their communities.

• Luxurious living for the ruling families, which prompted riots among the general population.

These riots among the general population led to the overthrow of the Umayyad by the Abbasid dynasty in 750 CE. Although most of the Umayyad were killed in the takeover, one member of the family escaped to Spain, where he established the Caliphate of Córdoba.

The Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasids, originally supported by the Shi’ites (Shia) , became increasingly receptive to the Sunni also. Establishing their capital at Baghdad in present-day Iraq, the Abbasids differed from the Umayyad in granting equal status to converts to Islam. Under the Abbasids:

• Converts experienced new opportunities for advanced education and career advancement.

• Trade was heightened from the western Mediterranean world to China.

• The learning of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Persians was preserved. Greek logic, particularly that of Aristotle, penetrated Muslim thought.

• The Indian system of numbers, which included the use of zero as a place holder, was carried by caravan from India to the Middle East and subsequently to Western Europe, where the numbers were labeled “Arabic” numerals.

• In mathematics, the fields of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry were further refined.

• The astrolabe , which measured the position of the stars, was improved.

• The study of astronomy produced maps of the stars.

• Optic surgery became a specialty, and human anatomy was studied in detail.

• Muslim cartographers produced some of the most detailed maps in the world.

• The number and size of urban centers such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba increased.

• Institutions of higher learning in Cairo, Baghdad, and Córdoba arose by the twelfth century.

• In the arts, calligraphy and designs called arabesques adorned writing and pottery.

• New architectural styles arose. Buildings were commonly centered around a patio area. Minarets , towers from which the faithful received the call to prayer, topped mosques , or Muslim places of worship.

• Great literature, such as poetic works and The Arabian Nights, enriched Muslim culture. Persian language and literary style was blended with that of Arabic.

• Mystics called Sufis , focusing on an emotional union with Allah , began missionary work to spread Islam.

Although responsible for much of the advancement of Islamic culture, the Abbasids found their vast empire increasingly difficult to govern. The dynasty failed to address the problem of succession within the Islamic world, and high taxes made the leaders less and less popular. Independent kingdoms began to arise within the Abbasid Empire, one of them in Persia, where local leaders, calling themselves “sultan ,” took control of Baghdad in 945 CE. The Persians were challenged by the Seljuk Turks from central Asia, who also chipped away at the Byzantine Empire. The weakening Persian sultanate allied with the Seljuks, whose contacts with the Abbasids had led them to begin converting to Sunni Islam in the middle of the tenth century. By the middle of the eleventh century, the Seljuks controlled Baghdad. In the thirteenth century, the Abbasid dynasty ended when Mongol invaders executed the Abbasid caliph.

It was the Seljuk takeover of Jerusalem that prompted the beginnings of the Crusades in 1095 CE (see Chapter 13 ). Divisions within the Muslim world allowed Christians from Western Europe to capture Jerusalem during the First Crusade. Under Saladin, however, Muslim armies reconquered most of the lost territory during the twelfth century.

Al-Andalus

The flowering of Islamic culture became particularly pronounced in al-Andalus, or Islamic Spain. In 711 CE, Berbers from North Africa conquered the Iberian peninsula, penetrating the European continent until their advance was stopped about 200 miles south of Paris at the Battle of Tours in 732 CE. Allies of the Umayyad dynasty, the caliphs of al-Andalus served to preserve Greco-Roman culture, enhancing it with the scientific and mathematical developments of the Muslim world. The Caliphate of Córdoba boasted a magnificent library and free education in Muslim schools. Interregional commerce thrived, while Arabic words such as alcohol, álgebra, and sofá were added to the Spanish vocabulary, and Muslim styles such as minarets, rounded arches, and arabesques were used in Spanish art and architecture.

Islam in India and Southeast Asia

Between the seventh and twelfth centuries, Muslims expanded their influence from northwest India to the Indus valley and a large portion of northern India. Centering their government at Delhi, the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate extended their power by military conquest, controlling northern India from 1206 to 1526. Unsuccessful at achieving popularity among the Indians as a whole because of their monotheistic beliefs, the Muslim conquerors found acceptance among some Buddhists. Members of lower Hindu castes and untouchables also found Islam appealing because of its accepting and egalitarian nature. Although militarily powerful, the Delhi Sultanate failed to establish a strong administration. It did, however, introduce Islam to the culture of India.

In Southeast Asia, Islam spread more from commercial contacts and conversion than from military victories. By the eighth century, Muslim traders reached Southeast Asia, with migrants from Persia and southern Arabia arriving during the tenth century. Although the new faith did not gain widespread popularity among Buddhist areas of mainland Southeast Asia, the inhabitants of some of the islands of the Indian Ocean, familiar with Islam from trading contacts, were receptive to the new faith. Hinduism and Buddhism remained popular with many of the island peoples of the Indian Ocean. At the same time, however, Islam also found a stronghold on the islands of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the southern Philippines.

Islam in Africa

The spirit of jihad , or Islamic holy war, brought Islam into Africa in the eighth century. Wave after wave of traders and travelers carried the message of Muhammad across the sands of the Sahara along caravan routes. In the tenth century, Egypt was added to the Muslim territories. The authoritarian rulers of African states in the savannas south of the Sahara Desert adapted well to the Muslim concept of the unification of secular and spiritual powers in the person of the caliph. By the tenth century, the rulers of the kingdom of Ghana in West Africa converted to Islam, followed in the thirteenth century by the conversion of the rulers of the empire of Mali to the east of Ghana. Although widely accepted by the rulers of these regions, the common people preferred to remain loyal to their traditional polytheistic beliefs. When they did convert to Islam, they tended to blend some of their traditional beliefs and practices with those of Islam. Some Sudanic societies were resistant to Islam because their matrilineal structure offered women more freedom than did the practice of Islam.

Along the east coast of Africa, Indian Ocean trade was the focal point that brought Islam to the inhabitants of the coastal areas and islands. East African cities such as Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Kilwa became vibrant centers of Islam that caught the attention of Ibn Battuta, an Arab traveler who journeyed throughout the world of Islam in the fourteenth century. Islam did not experience much success in finding converts in the interior of Africa. In East Africa, as in the western portion of the continent, rulers were the first to convert to Islam, followed much later, if at all, by the masses. Women in eastern Africa already experienced more freedoms than did their Muslim counterparts, a fact that made them resistant to the new faith.

Mamluk Dynasties

With the destruction of Islamic power in Baghdad at the hands of the Mongols (see Chapter 14 ), the Mamluk dynasties provided the force that made Egypt a center for Muslim culture and learning. The Mamluks were converts to Islam who maintained their position among the caliphs by adhering to a strict observance of Islam. By encouraging the safety of trade routes within their domain, the Mamluks contributed to the prosperity of Egypt during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries until internal disorder led to their takeover in the sixteenth century by the Ottoman Turks (see Chapter 16 ).

Role of Women in Islamic Society

The role of women in Islam underwent considerable change from the time of Muhammad to the fifteenth century. In the early days of Islam, women were not required to veil and were not secluded from the public; these customs were adopted by Islam after later contact with Middle Eastern women. The seclusion of the harem originated with the Abbasid court. From the time of Muhammad onward, Muslim men, following the example of Muhammad, could have up to four wives, provided that they could afford to treat them equally. Women, by contrast, were allowed only one husband.

In many respects, however, Islamic women enjoyed greater privileges than women in other societies at the same time. Both men and women were equal before Allah , and female infanticide was forbidden. Women could own property both before and after marriage. In some circumstances, Islamic women could initiate divorce proceedings and were allowed to remarry if divorced by their husbands. As time progressed, however, the legal privileges enjoyed by Islamic women were counterbalanced by their seclusion from the public, a situation designed to keep women, especially those from the urban elite classes, away from the gaze of men. This isolation often created barriers against the acceptance of Islam, especially among African women. Furthermore, both the Quran and the shariah established a patriarchal society.

Slavery in Dar al-Islam

Islamic law forbade its followers from enslaving other Muslims, except in the case of prisoners of war. Neither was the position of a slave hereditary; Muslims were frequently known to free their slaves, especially if they converted to Islam during their period of servitude. Children born to a slave woman and a Muslim man were considered free.

Rapid Review

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From the seventh to the fifteenth centuries, Islam served as a unifying force throughout many parts of Asia, Europe, and Africa, contributing to the cultural landscape of all three continents. Islam preserved the learning of the Greeks, Romans, and Persians, blending it with the artistic, scientific, and mathematical knowledge of its own culture. Educational opportunities were extended and urban centers established as Dar al-Islam extended its influence into the everyday lives of the inhabitants of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Review Questions

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1 . With regard to the doctrines of Islam in the period c. 600 CE to c. 1450

  (A) the concept of monotheism was unknown to the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula prior to Muhammad’s teachings

  (B) their teachings of equality made them more popular among the general population of Africa than among African rulers

  (C) they were embraced by members of the lower Hindu castes in India because of their emphasis on equality

  (D) they found widespread acceptance among Buddhists of both Central Asia and Southeast Asia

2 . The area in which Islam showed the most profound change during the seventh to the fifteenth centuries was in

  (A) its treatment toward People of the Book

  (B) the development of the shariah

  (C) the status of slaves

  (D) the role of women

3 . One of the weaknesses of the early Muslim empires was

  (A) disregard for the cultural traditions of conquered peoples

  (B) failure to resolve questions of succession

  (C) insistence on conversion of non-Arabs within the empire

  (D) indifference to the Sunni/Shi’ite split

4 . The Abbasid dynasty

  (A) created a social rift between Arabs and new converts

  (B) was more interested in strengthening Arab power than in gaining converts

  (C) healed the rift between Sunnis and Shi’ites

  (D) proved the high point of Muslim cultural achievement

5 . Which of the following qualifies as a primary source on the teachings of Muhammad?

  (A) The Quran

  (B) The Hadith

  (C) The Five Pillars

  (D) The umma

6 . Muhammad

  (A) made provisions for the future leadership of Islam

  (B) established clear class distinctions for Islamic society

  (C) built on the religious traditions of the Arabian peninsula

  (D) went against established gender distinctions in the practice of his faith

7 . The Five Pillars

  (A) are inattentive to distinctions in social class

  (B) are included in the Quran

  (C) require religious instruction as an entrance to the Islamic faith

  (D) provide unity within Islam

8 . As a new faith, Islam gained strength

  (A) within portions of the former Roman Empire

  (B) when adherence to Arabic ethnicity was emphasized over adherence to Islam

  (C) first in Mecca, then throughout the Arabian peninsula

  (D) because of rules of succession established by the first caliphs

Answers and Explanations

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1 . C Although the general population in India tended to cling to Hinduism, the lower castes and the untouchables often embraced Islam because it offered them the equality that the caste system did not. Monotheism (A) had already been introduced to the Arabian Peninsula by Jewish traders and Arab Christians. Islam was more popular among African rulers (B) than among the general population. In both Central Asia and Southeast Asia (D), Islam competed with Buddhism for followers.

2 . D The role of women changed significantly from the early days of Islam; contacts with other peoples introduced the veiling of women and their seclusion from society, both customs absent in the early Islamic culture. Throughout the period of the caliphate, the People of the Book (A) were respected by Muslim leaders. The precepts of the shariah remained consistent throughout the period (B). The status of slaves (C) as a nonhereditary class did not change during the caliphate.

3 . B Failure to resolve questions of succession led to the continued split between Sunnis and Shi’ites (D). Early Muslim empires tolerated both the legal systems and the cultural traditions (A) of non-Muslim peoples within the empire, and non-Islamic peoples were not required to convert (C).

4 . D With its preservation of Greco-Roman and Persian cultures and its own dissemination of knowledge and promotion of urbanization, the Abbasid dynasty proved the golden age of Islamic culture. The Abbasids accepted new converts on an equal basis with Arabs (A). Conversion was a primary goal of the Abbasids (B). The Sunni/Shi’ite split continues to the present (C).

5 . B The Hadith was a written compilation of the sayings of Muhammad, qualifying them as a primary source. The Quran (A) is a compilation of the revelations said to have been given to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel. The Five Pillars (C) evolved as regulations exacted of every Muslim. The umma (D) is the term for the community of the faithful.

6 . C The god Allah was already among the gods in the Arabic pantheon. Monotheism was practiced by the Jewish and Christian minorities living on the Arabian peninsula. In failing to name a successor, Muhammad did not make provisions for the future leadership of Islam (A). Muhammad came from a modest background but married into a family of wealthy merchants, indicating a disregard for social distinctions, a policy that was carried out in the requirement of Muslims to give alms to the poor (B). Women of the Arabian peninsula were allowed to engage in commerce, a tradition that was carried on in early Islam (D).

7 . D The first pillar requires only a simple statement of faith, a requirement that serves to unify Islam. No formal religious instruction is required by this statement (C). The Five Pillars make provisions for the welfare of the poor in Islamic society (A). The Quran was written down after the Five Pillars were established (B).

8 . A In the eighth century, Islam had extended to Spain, which had been a part of the Roman Empire. Islam became more unified after it changed the policy of the Umayyads to reflect an emphasis on acceptance of the faith over Arabic ethnicity (B). The people of Mecca accepted Islam only after Muhammad’s reconquest of the city (C). The first caliphs conflicted over the choice of a successor to Muhammad because of the prophet’s failure to appoint a successor (D).

Expansion of China

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The political disorder following the collapse of the Han dynasty was reversed by the establishment of centralized government under the Sui dynasty (589 to 618 CE). The brief period of Sui rule was followed by the powerful Tang (618 to 907 CE) and Song (960 to 1279 CE) dynasties. Although the era of the Tang was characterized by trade and agricultural expansion, that of the Song produced significant technological advances. At the same time, the Song emphasized Chinese tradition, including the patriarchal family and Confucian teachings.

Key Terms

abacus *

bakufu *

bushi *

bushido *

celadon

daimyo *

flying money

footbinding*

Gempei Wars

Grand Canal

junks*

kowtow*

Neo-Confucianism*

samurai *

scholar-gentry*

seppuku

serf*

Shinto*

shogun *

shogunate*

tea ceremony*

tribute*

---

Tang Dynasty

Internal disorder preceded the rise of the Tang dynasty in 618 CE. The Tang conquered Central Asia to the eastern border of Bactria (present-day Afghanistan), including portions of Tibet, Manchuria, and South Vietnam. In order to solidify control of their vast empire, the Tang used diplomacy and also strengthened the Great Wall to ward off the advances of nomadic peoples. The expanding Tang empire centered on a bureaucracy influenced by the scholar-gentry and by Confucian perceptions of effective government. During both the Tang and Song eras, the Chinese civil service examination was strengthened.

In spite of the emphasis placed by the Tang government on Confucian principles, Buddhism gained acceptance in China during the Tang period. Buddhism’s popularity among both elite and peasant groups resulted in an initial acceptance of the faith by Tang rulers. Thousands of monasteries populated by Buddhist monks and nuns dotted the Chinese landscape under early Tang rule. Especially supportive of Buddhism was Empress Wu (ruled 690 to 705 CE), who supported Buddhist art and sculpture and attempted to promote the faith as a state religion. As imperial tax exemptions and private gifts of property to Buddhist monasteries increased their wealth, the Tang began to fear the increasing power of Buddhism. Consequently, later Tang rulers placed restrictions on gifts of land and money to Buddhist monasteries, a policy that weakened the influence of the Buddhist faith in China. As Buddhism declined in power and wealth, Confucianism gained in popularity as an expression of Chinese tradition.

Decline of the Tang

Following the pattern of earlier Chinese dynasties, the Tang dynasty weakened as internal rebellion spread through the empire. At the same time, the Tang were plagued by invasions of nomadic peoples along their northern borders. By the ninth century, these nomads had placed themselves in control of large portions of northern China. Civil disorder reigned between the fall of the Tang in 907 CE and the accession of the Song in 960 CE.

Achievements of the Tang

Under Tang rule:

• Trade and travel along the Silk Roads was protected.

• Contacts with Islamic peoples increased.

• Ocean-going ships were improved, increasing interest in ocean trade.

• Chinese junks were among the world’s best ships and Chinese merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean.

• Paper money was introduced to China.

• Letters of credit, or flying money , facilitated long-distance trade.

• Urban areas grew in size.

• Canals and irrigation systems increased agricultural productivity. The Tang extended the Chinese canal system to supplement the Grand Canal , a 1,100-mile waterway constructed under the Sui to ease trade by connecting northern and southern China.

• Large estates were broken up and land redistributed.

• Gunpowder was invented.

• Short stories and poetry were popular.

• Tea and fast-growing rice were imported from Vietnam.

• Population growth in the rice-growing south surpassed that of the millet-growing north.

Song Dynasty

In 960 CE, China was overtaken by the Song dynasty. From its beginnings, the Song dynasty was unable to completely control the Khitan, a nomadic people to the north of the empire that had already assimilated much of Chinese culture. Throughout its 300-year rule of China, the Song had to pay tribute to the Khitan to keep them from conquering additional Song territory.

Under the Song dynasty many Chinese traditions were strengthened. For example:

• Civil service exams were emphasized as a prerequisite for government posts.

• Greater prestige was granted to the scholar-gentry.

• Neo-Confucianism arose as a blend of Confucian and Buddhist values. The new philosophy promoted the application of Confucian respect for authority and family to the everyday life of all levels of Chinese society, a feature that made it attractive to Chinese rulers. At the same time, the traditional aspect of Neo-Confucianism heightened the tendency of the Chinese elite classes to withdraw from contact with other peoples. Neo-Confucianism also reinforced gender and class distinctions.

The Song emphasis on the importance of the scholar-gentry over the military weakened its ability to withstand the threat of Khitan conquests of its northern borders. The cost of tribute paid to the Khitan burdened the Song economy as a whole, and especially the peasant class. Efforts at reform ended in the late eleventh century when Neo-Confucians reestablished Chinese tradition.

The faltering Song Empire now faced another threat: invasion by the Jurchens, another nomadic group. The Jurchens had overthrown the Khitan and settled in the region north of the Song Empire. They continued their conquest by dominating most of the basin of the Huang He (Yellow) River and causing the Song to retreat southward. The Song continued to thrive in the basin of the Yangtze River until 1279, during this time achieving noteworthy cultural and technological advances.

Achievements of the Song

During the rule of the Song dynasty:

• Overseas trade begun under the Tang continued.

• Artists expressed themselves through landscape paintings.

• Warfare saw the use of catapults to hurl bombs and grenades. Armies and ships used flamethrowers and rocket launchers.

• Printing with movable type was developed.

• Compasses were used in ocean navigation.

• The abacus was developed to aid counting and the recording of taxes.

• The practice of footbinding spread among the elite classes. Later, lower classes would often adopt the custom as well.

• The concept of the patriarchal family intensified.

Extension of China’s Influence

The reestablishment of tradition among the Chinese during the Tang and Song dynasties did not prevent Chinese culture from expanding to other regions in the East. Throughout the period, Japan built on its previous contacts with Chinese culture, while Vietnam and Korea forged new ones.

Japan

During the seventh century CE, Chinese culture reached Japan. Attempts by the Japanese emperor to mimic the form of Chinese bureaucracy resulted in Japan’s adoption of both Confucian thought and Chinese written characters. Buddhism mixed with Shinto , the traditional Japanese belief system that revered spirits of nature and of ancestors.

Aristocratic rebellion against the complete adoption of Chinese ways led to the restoration of the elite classes and the establishment of large estates in Japan. Local aristocrats began to acquire their own military. As the power of the Japanese emperor steadily gave way to that of aristocrats in the capital at Kyoto, the power of local lords in the countryside increased. Rather than providing land and labor for the imperial court, local lords ran their own tiny kingdoms. The Japanese countryside saw the construction of fortresses protected by earthen walks and ditches similar to the moats used by European fortresses (Chapter 13 ).

The small states into which Japan was divided by the eleventh century were led by bushi , who not only administered their territories but also maintained their own military. Armed military troops called samurai served the bushi. Periodically, the samurai also were expected to serve in the capital to protect the emperor from bandits. Armed with curved swords, they engaged in battles in which they shouted out the details of their family heritage before engaging in conflicts.

The rise of the samurai gradually moved Japan toward a style of feudalism with some similarities to that of Western Europe during the same period. A samurai code of honor called bushido developed. This code included the practice of seppuku , or disembowelment, a form of suicide used by defeated or disgraced warriors to maintain family and personal honor. Japanese peasants gradually became serfs bound to the land and considered property of the local lord.

By the twelfth century, powerful families such as the Fujiwara allied themselves with local lords. During the late twelfth century, a series of conflicts called the Gempei Wars placed peasants against the samurai . The Japanese countryside was destroyed. As a result of the Gempei Wars, in 1185 a powerful family, the Minamoto, established the bakufu , or military government. Although the emperor and his court remained, real power now resided in the Minamoto family and their samurai . As imperial government broke down, the Japanese increasingly distanced themselves from Chinese Confucian ways.

The Shogunate

During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, real Japanese authority lay in the hands of prominent families who, in turn, controlled military leaders called shoguns . A period of civil disorder in the fourteenth century lessened the power of both the emperor and the shogunate . The resulting power vacuum allowed the bushi vassals to acquire lands that they then divided among their samurai . The samurai were required to pledge loyalty to their lord and provide him with military assistance when needed. Further court rebellions from 1467 to 1477 culminated in the division of Japan into approximately 300 tiny kingdoms, each ruled by a warlord called a daimyo .

Japanese warrior culture changed as the code of bushido lost its dominance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Large castles of stone and wood began to dot the Japanese landscape. Poorly trained peasant armies armed with pikes became a major fighting force of daimyo armies.

Gradually, some daimyo began to impose a degree of centralization upon their vassals and peasants. Taxes were collected to fund public projects such as the improvement of irrigation systems. Trade between villages arose and blossomed into long-distance trade, including trade with China. Merchant and artisan guilds arose; both men and women participated in these organizations. The strengthening of trade in Japan promoted the use of a common currency that assisted the centralization of the Japanese state.

Although trade revived in Japan, Japanese art also was developing its characteristic traditions. Although much Japanese art was an imitation of Chinese models, Japanese artists created their own style in sketches done in ink. Both Shintoism and Buddhism were reflected in two additional examples of Japanese artistry: the tea ceremony and decorative gardens.

Korea

Chinese influences in Korea can be traced back as far as the fourth century BCE, when the knowledge of metallurgy and agriculture spread from China to the Korean peninsula. In the latter part of the Han dynasty, Chinese settlers moved into Korea. Through these contacts Chinese culture, especially Buddhism, found a path into Korea. Chinese writing, which was later modified and made more suitable to the Korean language, was introduced. Confucian classics were read by Korean scholars.

Tang rulers defeated Korean peoples who resisted Chinese rule. The Silla kingdom of Korea, however, routed Tang forces. In 668 CE, the Chinese withdrew from Korea in exchange for an arrangement that made the Silla vassals of the Tang and required them to pay tribute. After the Tang withdrew, the Silla united Korea.

The Silla studied Chinese customs and willingly performed the kowtow (a ritual bow) to the Chinese emperor. They introduced the Chinese civil service exam to Korea. The Silla made tribute payments that allowed them to participate in the Chinese trade network and in educational systems with Vietnamese, Japanese, and other Eastern peoples. Korean cultural and commercial opportunities, therefore, expanded. Buddhism became popular, especially with the Korean elite classes. Techniques of porcelain manufacture made their way from China to Korea; the Koreans modified Chinese porcelain to produce celadon bowls with a characteristic pale green color.

The Mongol invasion of Korea in the thirteenth century interfered with cultural contacts between Korea and China. When the Mongols were cast from Korea in 1392, Korea once again established contacts with the Chinese.

Vietnam

Southeast Asians displayed a somewhat different response to the introduction of Chinese culture than the peoples of East Asia had. While the Viets admired the technological advances and political ideals of the Chinese, at the same time they highly valued their own independence. Before the time of the Qin dynasty, the Viets carried on an active trade with the people of southern China. The Viets gradually brought the lands of the Red River valley under their control and began intermarrying with the peoples of present-day Cambodia and others in Southeast Asia. In contrast to the Chinese, the Viets had a different spoken language, lived in villages rather than establishing large urban areas, and based their society on the nuclear family. Vietnamese women enjoyed more privileges than women in China. Additionally, Buddhism gained greater popularity in Vietnam than in China.

When Han rulers attempted to annex South China into their empire, they encountered opposition from the Viets. Initially requiring the payment of tribute from the Viets, the Han conquered them in 111 BCE. Under Han rule the Viets adopted Chinese agricultural and irrigation techniques, the Confucian concept of veneration of ancestors, and the extended family structure. In spite of their admiration of some aspects of Chinese culture, however, the Viets periodically staged rebellions against Chinese rule. After the fall of the Tang in 907 CE, they staged a major protest, which in 939 CE resulted in Vietnamese independence. After their independence was secured, the Viets continued the Confucian civil service examinations, which had earlier been disbanded. Vietnamese conquests of neighboring peoples succeeded largely because of the military organization and technology they had adopted from the Chinese.

Rapid Review

---

The Tang and Song dynasties proved to be an era of active long-distance trade contacts and unprecedented technological innovation in China. During this era, China extended its borders to intensify the diffusion of its culture to regions such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. At the same time that China was broadening its influence, it was repeatedly plagued by nomadic invaders from the north such as the Khitan and the Jurchens. The necessity of addressing the problem of nomadic invasions became China’s next great challenge.

Review Questions

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1 . Confucianism

  (A) became more popular in Vietnam than in Korea

  (B) combined with Buddhism to create a cultural bridge between China and Korea

  (C) brought greater freedom to Vietnamese women

  (D) blended well with Shintoism to forge Japanese artistic traditions

2 . Which was NOT an achievement of the Tang dynasty?

  (A) The solution to the problem of nomadic peoples along China’s border

  (B) The adoption of products from Vietnam

  (C) An emphasis on long-distance trade

  (D) Irrigation

3 . The position of Chinese women

  (A) resulted in greater freedoms under Neo-Confucianism

  (B) changed markedly between the seventh and thirteenth centuries

  (C) was defined by Confucianism

  (D) was more restrictive under the Tang than under the Song

4 . Japanese feudalism

  (A) brought a temporary end to internal conflicts

  (B) revolved around the power of the samurai as warlords

  (C) saw the beginnings of a centralized Japan

  (D) united peasant and elite classes

5 . Compared to the Viets, the Chinese were more

  (A) agrarian

  (B) ethnically diverse

  (C) interested in trade

  (D) urbanized

6 . Compared to Korean attitudes toward the Chinese, the Japanese

  (A) were more devoted to Confucianism

  (B) were more favorable to the civil service examination

  (C) demonstrated a desire to show respect to the Chinese emperor

  (D) were similar in their desire to become part of the Chinese trading system

7 . The position of the Chinese scholar-gentry

  (A) was mimicked by the Japanese

  (B) was admired by the Vietnamese

  (C) weakened efforts to curb nomadic invasions

  (D) declined during the Song dynasty

8 . Buddhism became more popular among China’s neighbors than in China itself because

  (A) Buddhism reinforced Confucian gender roles

  (B) Buddhism weakened the power of the Chinese emperor

  (C) Buddhism reinforced a stratified society

  (D) Buddhism did not originate in China

Answers and Explanations

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1 . B The Confucian civil service exam was adopted by the Koreans and Confucian classics were studied by Korean scholars. Also, Buddhist thought gained popularity among Koreans. Confucian thought was accepted more readily in Korea than in Vietnam, which strongly preferred Buddhism (A). Buddhism gained acceptance among the Japanese blending with traditional Japanese Shinto beliefs to influence Japanese gardens and tea ceremonies (D). Among the distinct differences between the Vietnamese and Chinese were the restrictions placed on Chinese women (C).

2 . A The Tang were unable to permanently resolve the problem of nomadic peoples along their northern borders. Tea and fast-growing rice were adopted from Vietnam (B). Long-distance trade increased contacts with other peoples in the East (C). China became increasingly urbanized under the Tang (D).

3 . C Confucianism strengthened the concept of the patriarchal family, which placed women in a position subordinate to men. Neo-Confucianism, which applied Confucian principles to everyday life, did nothing to elevate the status of women (A). Although Chinese women enjoyed a few opportunities to participate in business ventures during Tang rule (D), the basic position of women as inferior to men changed little over the centuries in this patriarchal society (B).

4 . C Efforts of the daimyo in the later years of feudalism to adopt a common currency and fund public works led to the beginnings of a centralized Japanese state. Internal conflicts between warlords and also between peasants and warlords (D) marked Japanese feudalism (A).

5 . D Especially by the Song era, urbanization became a trademark of Chinese civilization. The Viets lived almost entirely in villages. Although agriculture was common to both societies, Chinese urban life made its culture less agrarian than that of the Viets (A). The Vietnamese custom of intermarrying with the peoples of other societies in Southeast Asia made their society more ethnically diverse than that of the Chinese (B). Both societies traded widely, often with each other (C).

6 . D Both Japan and Korea benefited by participation in the Chinese trading system. The Japanese rejected the centralization of the Chinese government as unsuitable for their society. Of the two belief systems borrowed from China, Buddhism became more accepted in Japan (A). The Chinese civil service exam was used in Korea rather than in Japan (B). The Koreans, not the Japanese, performed the kowtow to the Chinese emperor (C).

7 . C Under the Song, the relative importance placed on the scholar-gentry over that of the military weakened efforts to curb the threat of nomads along China’s northern border. Neither the Japanese (A) nor the Vietnamese (B) developed a class of scholar-gentry. The position of the scholar-gentry strengthened under the Song (D).

8 . D Originating in India, Buddhism was not so strongly associated with Chinese culture as Confucianism. Buddhism was more accepting of women than Confucianism with its defined gender roles (A). Buddhism favored a more egalitarian society (C). Buddhist belief did not strive to undermine the power of the emperor (B) and supported the political system of the country, whether centralized or decentralized.

Changes in European Institutions

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: In the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, Western Europe underwent a period of political, economic, and social upheaval that continued until about 900 CE. The one stabilizing force throughout most of Western Europe was the Roman Catholic Church. Only in Spain, dominated by Muslim influences, did the learning of the Greeks and Romans thrive in Western Europe.

Key Terms

benefice *

chivalry*

excommunication*

feudalism*

fief*

Gothic architecture*

investiture*

Magna Carta *

manorialism*

medieval*

Middle Ages*

moldboard plow

parliament*

vassal*

---

Manorialism and Feudalism in Western Europe

Even before the fall of the Roman Empire, declining prosperity in the final years of the empire had caused small landowners to sell off their land holdings to the owners of large estates. Although some peasants relocated to urban areas, others remained to work the land, receiving protection from their landlords in exchange for their agricultural labor. As trade continued to decline and political order disintegrated, manorialism became more widespread. When a wave of Vikings from Scandinavia invaded Europe in the ninth century, Western Europeans turned to feudalism to provide a means of protection.

Feudalism was a political, economic, and social system. Throughout most areas of Western Europe, nobles or landlords offered benefices , or privileges, to vassals in exchange for military service in the lord’s army or agricultural labor on the lord’s estate. Often the benefice was a grant of land, called a fief . Feudalism was structured so that a person could enjoy the position of a noble with vassals under him and, at the same time, serve as vassal to a noble of higher status. Knights, similar in their roles to the samurai of Japan, were vassals who served in the lord’s military forces. Like the samurai , the knights of Western Europe followed an honor code called chivalry . In contrast to the samurai code of bushido , however, chivalry was a reciprocal, or two-sided, contract between vassal and lord. Whereas the code of bushido applied to both men and women of the samurai class, chivalry was followed only by the knights.

Occupying the lowest rank on the medieval European manor were serfs, whose labor provided the agricultural produce needed to maintain the self-sufficiency of the manor. The life of serfs was difficult. In addition to giving the lord part of their crops, they had to spend a number of days each month working the lord’s lands or performing other types of labor service for the lord. The agricultural tools available to them were crude. Only after the invention of the heavy moldboard plow in the ninth century did they possess a tool adequate to turn the heavy sod of Western Europe. Serfdom was different from slavery; serfs could not be bought or sold and could pass on their property to their heirs.

Beginnings of Regional Governments

At the same time that feudalism provided protection to the inhabitants of Western Europe, people known as the Franks rose in prominence in the region of present-day northern France, western Germany, and Belgium. The Franks were the descendants of the Germanic tribe that overran Gaul (present-day France) after the fall of Rome. By the fifth century CE, the Franks had converted to Christianity. From the time of the ninth century onward, some areas of Western Europe saw the strengthening of regional kingdoms such as that of the Franks.

Rulers of northern Italy and Germany also gained prominence by the tenth century. Eventually, in an effort to connect with the classical empire of Rome, they began to call their territory the Holy Roman Empire. As the French philosopher Voltaire later commented, however, it was “neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire.” The new empire was but a fraction of the size of the original empire of the Romans. In spite of its grand claims, northern Italy continued to be organized into independent city-states, and Germany into numerous local states also overseen by feudal lords. While providing a measure of unity for a portion of Europe during the Middle Ages , the long-term political effect of the Holy Roman Empire was to delay the unification of both Germany and Italy into separate states until the end of the nineteenth century.

In England, an alternate form of feudalism took hold as a result of the Norman invasion of 1066. In that year, the Duke of Normandy, later called William the Conqueror, arrived in England from his province of Normandy in northern France. Of Viking descent, William transplanted his form of feudalism to England. Rather than following a complex structure of lords and vassals, William imposed a feudal structure that required all vassals to owe their allegiance directly to the monarch.

Growth of Parliamentary Government in England

The political structure of medieval England further distinguished itself by imposing limitations on the power of the monarchy, and establishing one of the earliest parliamentary governments. Even under the English style of feudalism, nobles continued to hold considerable influence. In 1215, in an effort to control the tax policies of King John, English nobles forced John to sign the Magna Carta . This document endowed the English nobility with basic rights that were later interpreted to extend to the other English social classes as well. The first English parliament , convened in 1265, also was an extension of feudal rights of collaboration between king and vassals. The first meeting of this representative body saw its division into a House of Lords representing the clergy and nobility and a House of Commons elected by urban elite classes. Parliaments also arose in Spain, France, Scandinavia, and parts of Germany.

Renewed Economic Growth

Although Western Europe experienced political disorder during the medieval period, by the ninth century the former Roman Empire began to witness signs of renewed economic growth and technological innovation. Contacts with the eastern portion of the former Roman Empire and with people of Central Asia had brought the moldboard plow into use in Western Europe. Also, the military effectiveness of the medieval knight was improved through the introduction of the stirrup.

Improved agricultural techniques resulted in population growth, a trend that also increased the size of urban areas. Warmer temperatures between 800 and 1300 also contributed to urban revival. Landlords often extended their landholdings, sometimes paying serfs a salary to work these new lands. A degree of security returned to Western Europe as many of the Vikings, now Christian, ceased their raids and became settled peoples. In present-day France, palace schools were established to educate local children.

The Crusades

The Crusades between the Western and Eastern worlds and between Christianity and Islam opened up new contacts. As a result of their campaigns to retake the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks, Western Europeans were exposed to the larger and more prosperous urban areas of the Byzantine Empire with their magnificent examples of Eastern architecture. The Crusades also introduced the West to sugarcane, spices, and luxury goods such as porcelain, glassware, and carpets from the Eastern world. Trade between East and West increased, although it proved an unbalanced trade; while the West was attracted to the fine goods of the East, the Eastern world displayed little interest in the inferior trade items offered by the West. Western appreciation for the treasures of the East was not universal, however. During the Fourth Crusade, merchants from Venice expressed their intense rivalry with Eastern merchants by looting the city of Constantinople.

As Western Europe widened its knowledge of other peoples through trade, its growing population also extended into neighboring areas. After settling down in Europe during the tenth century, the Vikings explored the northern Atlantic, inhabiting Iceland and establishing temporary settlements in Greenland and the northeastern portion of North America. Seeking new agricultural lands, the people of Western Europe also pushed into areas of Eastern Europe.

Conflicts Between Church and State

While Western Europeans engaged in commercial rivalries with other societies, a second rivalry had developed in Western Europe: one between church leaders and monarchs. Throughout the Middle Ages, the church had sometimes taken the role of a feudal lord, owning large landholdings. In some cases, the growing wealth of the Roman Catholic Church served as a temptation for priests and monks to set aside their spiritual responsibilities to concentrate on the acquisition of material possessions.

Conflicts between church leaders and secular leaders arose over the issue of investiture . Lay investiture was a process by which monarchs appointed church bishops. Especially intense was the controversy between Pope Gregory VII (1073 to 1085) and Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, which culminated with the excommunication of Henry IV. Henry’s subsequent confession demonstrated that, in this instance, the pope had gained the upper hand.

Role of Women in Medieval European Society

Throughout the Middle Ages, Western European women carried out traditional roles of homemaker and childcare provider. It is possible that among the elite classes, the position of women declined over that of earlier ages as the code of chivalry reinforced ideas of women as weak and subordinate to men. Women who resided in medieval towns were allowed a few privileges such as participation in trade and in some craft guilds. Convents also offered some women opportunities for service in their communities. For the most part, however, medieval European women were expected to serve as reflections of their husbands.

High Middle Ages in Western Europe

By the eleventh century, significant changes occurred in Western Europe to indicate the region’s gradual emergence from the relative cultural decline of the medieval period. Termed the High Middle Ages, the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries saw the following changes in Western European society:

• Gothic architecture ––Cathedrals with tall spires and arched windows with stained glass reflected Muslim designs and Western architectural technology.

• Increased urbanization—The size of Western European cities still could not compare with the much larger urban areas of China.

• Rise of universities

• Decline in the number of serfs on the manor. Some serfs received wages to work in new agricultural lands, while others fled to towns. A serf who remained in a town for a year and a day was considered a free person.

• Emergence of centralized monarchies

• Strengthening of nation-states. The Hundred Years’ War (1337 to 1453) increased the power of both France and England and is also considered by many historians as the end of Europe’s medieval period.

• Increased Eurasian trade

• Growth of banking

• New warfare technology such as gunpowder and cannon that made castles increasingly obsolete

The renewal of economic and intellectual vigor and the tendency toward centralized regional political authority marked the beginning of a new era on the European continent.

Rapid Review

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The decline of Roman authority in Western Europe resulted in the rise of feudalism as a system of protection. Feudalism in Western Europe bore some similarities to Japanese feudalism. Although Western European feudalism created local governments, in some areas of Europe, such as France, regional kingdoms arose. Characteristic of feudal Europe was a persistent conflict between popes and kings concerning secular authority. Many European women continued in traditional roles. By the eleventh century, Western Europe demonstrated signs of revival as universities were established, trade increased, and some serfs began to leave the manor.

Review Questions

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1 . In contrast to Japanese feudalism, Western European feudalism

  (A) included women in the feudal relationship

  (B) created a reciprocal relationship between lord and vassal

  (C) was based on a noncontractual relationship

  (D) did not lead to centralized regional governments

2 . Early medieval Europe’s strongest state was

  (A) the Papal States

  (B) England

  (C) France

  (D) the Holy Roman Empire

3 . The period of greatest population decline in Europe during the Middle Ages was

  (A) from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries

  (B) the fourteenth century

  (C) the fifth and sixth centuries

  (D) the fifteenth century

4 . During the Middle Ages, the concept of limited government was seen most clearly in

  (A) France

  (B) Germany

  (C) England

  (D) Italy

5 . Which statement describes Europe between the ninth to fifteenth centuries?

  (A) The consolidation of Germanic kingdoms into a single Germanic state

  (B) The end of pressure from migratory peoples

  (C) Steady decline of educational opportunities

  (D) The expansion of the Eastern world into Western Europe

6 . Trade during the medieval period

  (A) weakened in the Baltic regions as continental routes broadened

  (B) placed the power of the merchant classes in competition with monarchical power

  (C) shifted away from the Mediterranean basin after the fall of Rome

  (D) placed Europe within the Muslim commercial network

7 . The fifteenth century was characterized by

  (A) the beginnings of nation-states in Italy and Germany

  (B) the strengthening of nation-states in England and France

  (C) decentralization of political power in Spain

  (D) the establishment of Western European political tradition in the Middle East

8 . Medieval Europe

  (A) extended local schools found on the manor

  (B) developed new banking institutions from multicultural contacts

  (C) saw the rise of universities after the conclusion of the Hundred Years’ War

  (D) produced urban areas that rivaled those of Eastern empires

Answers and Explanations

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1 . B Feudalism in Western Europe was based on a reciprocal, or mutual relationship of responsibility between lord and vassal, whereas Japanese feudalism exacted obedience from the samurai regardless of the responsibility of the daimyo . European chivalry was binding to the knights only, whereas Japanese bushido applied to both men and women of the samurai class (A). The European relationship between lord and vassal was based on a contract, whereas the Japanese bushido was based on samurai honor (C). Although Japanese feudalism did not lead to the establishment of regional governments, Europe saw the prominence of centralized regional governments in France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire (D).

2 . D The Holy Roman Empire brought a measure of unity to central Europe, essentially embracing the city-states of northern Italy and the principalities of Germany. The Papal States consisted of a small territory in the central Italian peninsula (A). Both England (B) and France (C) saw the beginnings of regional governments that did not compare in size with that of the Holy Roman Empire.

3 . B European population declined drastically during the fourteenth century because of the devastation of the bubonic plague. This decline was reversed during the fifteenth century (D). European population saw a steady rise between the tenth to the thirteenth centuries as a result of the introduction of new crops and farming methods (A). Although European population declined somewhat after the fall of Rome in the fifth century (C), this decline was not as dramatic as that of the fourteenth century.

4 . C England witnessed the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215 and the first parliament in 1265, both placing limits on the power of the monarchy. France remained under the control of monarchs (A). Germany (B) and Italy (D), not yet united as nation-states, were part of the Holy Roman Empire.

5 . D From 711 to 1492, portions of Spain were dominated by the empire of Islam. Silk Roads trade continued to forge contacts between East and West, and contact with the Eastern world escalated as a result of the Crusades. German provinces were not united into a single German state (A). The Vikings moved into Europe, not forming settled communities on a large scale until about the year 1000 (B). By the ninth century, palace schools had arisen in Western Europe, and by the eleventh century several universities were in operation (C).

6 . D During the Muslim occupation of Spain, al-Andalus became part of the Muslim trade network. During the European Middle Ages, trade increased in the Baltic regions (A) and continued in the Mediterranean basin, even though it weakened after the fall of Rome (C). Merchant classes tended to prefer the stability that monarchs could bring to the commercial world (B).

7 . B The end of the Hundred Years’ War in 1453 saw the strengthening of the concept of the nation-state in both France and England. Italy and Germany were not organized into nation-states until the late nineteenth century (A). Power in Spain was centralized under both Muslim rule and under Christian rulers as they began the reconquest (C). The Middle East was uninterested in the establishment of Western political traditions (D).

8 . B Letters of credit used in the Chinese and Muslim worlds became forerunners of the Western European banking institution in the Middle Ages. Medieval European manors did not usually provide schools for manor children (A). Universities had already begun to appear in various parts of Europe by the twelfth century (C). Eastern urban areas, especially those in China, tended to be much larger than those in Western Europe (D).

Interregional Trade and Exchange

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Throughout the period from 600 CE to 1450, global contacts gradually increased. In Eurasia, the Mongols served as trade facilitators between East and West. In Africa, the migrations of Bantu-speaking peoples not only altered the nature of African society but also led to new contacts between African and Arab peoples in the eastern portions of sub-Saharan Africa. Indian Ocean trade networks enriched contacts between African and Asian peoples. The eastern portion of the Roman Empire gradually lost territory to the Turks as Western Europe built upon Islamic and Greco-Roman traditions to forge a new society on the European continent.

Key Terms

age grade*

astrolabe*

Austronesian*

Bantu-speaking peoples*

Black Death*

caravel*

griots *

Hanseatic League

kamikaze *

Khan *

lateen sail*

Malay sailors*

Maori*

metropolitan*

Middle Kingdom*

Ming dynasty

Mongol Peace*

perspective*

Renaissance*

stateless society*

steppe diplomacy*

syncretism*

Yuan dynasty

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The Mongols

The Song dynasty was overcome in the thirteenth century by the Mongols, a society of pastoral nomads from the steppes of Central Asia. By the end of their period of dominance in the fifteenth century, the Mongols had conquered China, Persia, and Russia, controlling the largest land empire in history. In establishing their empire, the Mongols facilitated the flow of trade between Europe and Asia and brought bubonic plague to three continents.

Accomplished horsemen, the Mongols typified the numerous nomadic bands that migrated throughout Central Asia in search of grazing lands for their livestock. To supplement the meat and dairy products provided by their herds, the Mongols traded with settled agricultural peoples for grain and vegetables. The basic unit of Mongol society was the tribe; when warfare threatened, tribes joined together to form confederations. Although men held tribal leadership roles, Mongol women had the right to speak in tribal councils. Throughout their history, the Mongols were masters of the intrigues of steppe diplomacy , which involved alliances with other pastoral groups and the elimination of rivals, sometimes rivals within one’s own family.

Early Mongol influence on China had begun as early as the twelfth century, when the Mongols defeated an army from Qin China sent to repel their advances. The leader credited with organizing the Mongols into an effective confederation was Temujin, who was renamed Chinggis Khan when he was elected the ultimate ruler, or Khan , of the Mongol tribes in 1206. A master at motivating the Mongol tribes, Chinggis Khan managed to break individual clan loyalties and construct new military units with allegiance to himself as their leader.

In addition to their unparalleled horsemanship, the Mongols became masters of the shortbow. Mongol contact with the Chinese also introduced them to other weapons of war such as the catapult, gunpowder, cannons, flaming arrows, and battering rams. By the time that Chinggis Khan died in 1227, the Mongols controlled an empire that extended from northern China to eastern Persia.

As they consolidated their empire, the Mongols were more preoccupied with collecting tribute than with administering their newly acquired territories. They were generally tolerant toward the religious beliefs and practices of the people they conquered and sometimes eventually adopted the dominant religion of their subject peoples.

Expansion of the Mongol Empire into Russia

The Mongol conquests continued after the death of Chinggis Khan, reaching Russia by 1237. From that year until 1240 the Mongols, or Tartars as the Russians called them, executed the only successful winter invasions of Russia in history. Cities that resisted Mongol advances saw their inhabitants massacred or sold into slavery. The once-prosperous city of Kiev was burned to the ground. The effects of the Mongol occupation of Russia were numerous:

• Mongols set up a tribute empire called The Golden Horde.

• Serfdom arose as peasants gave up their lands to the aristocracy in exchange for protection from the Mongols.

• Moscow benefited financially by acting as a tribute collector for the Mongols. When neighboring towns failed to make their tribute payments, the princes of Moscow added their territory to the principality of Moscow.

• They strengthened the position of the Orthodox Church by making the metropolitan , or head of the Orthodox Church, the head of the Russian church.

• Mongol rule kept Russia culturally isolated from Western European trends such as the Renaissance. This isolation denied Russia opportunities to establish both commercial and cultural contacts with the West, in a situation that fostered misunderstanding through the modern period.

After establishing their presence in Russia, the Mongols went on to their next goal: the conquest of Europe. After an attempted conquest of Hungary in 1240 and raids in Eastern Europe, the Mongols withdrew to handle succession issues in their capital of Karakorum in Mongolia. The proposed conquest of Europe never materialized.

Mongols in Persia

After abandoning their plans to add Europe to their empire, the Mongols turned to conquest within the world of Islam. In 1258, the city of Baghdad was destroyed and Persia added to the portion of the Mongol Empire known as the Ilkhanate. Among the approximately 800,000 people slaughtered in the capture of Baghdad was the Abbasid caliph. With his murder, the Islamic dynasty that had ruled Persia for about 500 years ended. Another group of Islamic peoples, the Seljuk Turks, had been defeated by the Mongols in 1243, weakening their dominance in Anatolia. The resulting power vacuum facilitated the conquest of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) by the Ottoman Turks in the fifteenth century. The Mongol threat to the Islamic world ended in 1260 at the hands of the Mamluks, or slaves, of Egypt.

The Mongols in China

In China, the Mongols under the leadership of Kubilai Khan, a grandson of Chinggis Khan, turned their attention to the remnants of the Song Empire in the southern part of the country. By 1271, Kubilai Khan controlled most of China and began to refer to his administration of China as the Yuan dynasty . The Yuan dynasty would administer China until its overthrow by the Ming dynasty in 1368. Under Mongol rule:

• The Chinese were forbidden to learn the Mongol written language, which was the language of official records under the Yuan dynasty.

• Intermarriage between Mongols and Chinese was outlawed.

• The Chinese civil service examination was not reinstated.

• Religious toleration was practiced.

• Chinese were allowed to hold positions in local and regional governments.

• Mongol women enjoyed more freedoms than Chinese women, refusing to adopt the Chinese practice of footbinding. Mongol women also were allowed to move about more freely in public than were Chinese women. Toward the end of the Yuan dynasty, however, the increasing influence of Neo-Confucianism saw greater limits placed on Mongol women.

• The Yuan used the expertise of scholars and artisans from various societies.

• Foreigners were welcome at the Yuan court. Among visitors to the Mongol court were the Venetian Marco Polo and his family. Marco Polo’s subsequent account of his travels, perhaps partially derived from other sources, increased European interest in exploring other lands.

• Merchants were accorded higher status in the Mongol administration than they had under the Chinese.

• The suppression of piracy furthered maritime trade.

• Attempts at expansion culminated in the unsuccessful invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1280 and a brief occupation of Vietnam. The attempted invasions of Japan were turned back by treacherous winds known to the Japanese as divine winds, or kamikaze.

By the mid-fourteenth century, the court of Kubilai Khan weakened as it became more concerned with the accumulation and enjoyment of wealth than with efficient administration. Banditry, famine, and peasant rebellion characterized the last years of the Yuan until their overthrow by a Chinese peasant who founded the Ming dynasty.

Impact of Mongol Rule on Eurasia

The most significant positive role of the Mongols was the facilitation of trade between Europe and Asia. The peace and stability fostered by the Mongol Empire, especially during the Mongol Peace of the mid-thirteenth to the mid-fourteenth centuries, promoted the exchange of products that brought increased wealth to merchants and enriched the exchange of ideas between East and West. Along the major trade routes, merchants founded diaspora communities that fostered cultural exchange. Among them were Jewish communities along the Silk Roads and the Mediterranean in addition to settlements of Chinese merchants in Southeast Asia. New trading posts and empires encouraged European peoples to later invest in voyages of exploration.

Long-distance travel increased. Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan Muslim scholar, traveled throughout the Muslim world, including Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia, Spain, and East Africa. His journal, as well as the writings of Marco Polo, became valuable resources in the study of cultural exchange in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

Another exchange brought about unintentionally by the Mongols proved devastating to Europe, Asia, and Africa: the spread of the bubonic plague. It is possible that the plague entered Mongol-controlled territories through plague-infested fleas carried by rats that helped themselves to the grain in Mongol feedsacks. The bubonic plague, known also in Europe as the Black Death , spread across the steppes of Central Asia to China, where it contributed to the weakening and eventual fall of the Yuan dynasty. In the mid-fourteenth century, the plague also spread throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. The disease followed Eurasian and African trade routes as merchants carried it from city to city and port to port. As many as 25,000,000 people may have died from plague in China, and Europe lost about one-third of its population; the Middle East also suffered a large death toll. Significant loss of life among Western European serfs helped deal a final blow to manorialism in that region. Some plague-devastated areas required 100 years or more to recover population losses and economic and urban vigor.

Further Nomadic Influences

With the decrease of Mongol dominance in Eurasia came a final nomadic thrust by Timur the Lame, or Tamerlane, a Turk from Central Asia. Although his capital city at Samarkand was noted for architectural beauty, his conquests were known only for their incredible brutality. From the mid-1300s until his death in 1405, Tamerlane spread destruction across Persia, Mesopotamia, India, and a part of southern Russia. His death marked the final major thrust of nomadic peoples from Central Asia into Eurasia.

Encounter and Exchange in Africa: The Bantu Migrations

Sub-Saharan Africa witnessed an exchange of ideas, technology, and language through the migrations of the Bantu-speaking peoples. About 2000 BCE, small numbers of agrarian peoples from the edge of the rainforest in present-day Nigeria began migrating from their homeland, perhaps as a result of population pressures. The migrations escalated throughout the period from 500 BCE to 1000 CE, and continued until about 1500 CE.

As the Bantu peoples migrated southward and eastward throughout sub-Saharan Africa, they spread the knowledge of the agricultural techniques that they brought from their homeland. Following the course of the Congo River, they farmed the fertile land along riverbanks at the edges of the rainforest. Their contacts with foraging peoples of central Africa taught them the techniques of cattle-raising. As they migrated, the Bantu also spread the knowledge of ironworking. Historians are unsure whether their skills in ironworking were learned from previous contact with the ironworkers of Kush or were acquired by independent innovation. Whatever the reason, the spread of iron agricultural implements facilitated crop cultivation throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

The Bantu acquired an additional source of nutrition with the arrival of the banana on the African continent. Carried from Southeast Asia through the Indian Ocean to Madagascar by the Malay sailors about 400 CE, the banana reached the African continent through interactions between the descendants of the Malay sailors and African peoples. After its arrival on the African continent, the banana spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa in a reverse pattern to that of the migratory Bantu. Today, the inhabitants of Madagascar speak a language belonging to the same Austronesian linguistic group as Malaysian tongues.

Interactions in East Africa

The Bantu migrations also resulted in the spread of the Bantu languages. By the thirteenth century, the Bantu had reached the eastern coast of Africa, where they came into contact with Arab traders. The interactions between the two groups of people forged the syncretism of the Bantu and Arabic languages into the Swahili tongue. Swahili remains a major African language to the present.

Bantu Society and Government

The Bantu also contributed their social and political organization to the heritage of sub-Saharan Africa. With the village as the basis of Bantu society, stateless societies emerged as the political organization of the Bantu. Stateless societies were organized around family and kinship groups led by a respected family member. Religion was animistic, with a belief in spirits inhabiting the natural world. Early Bantu societies did not have a written language; oral traditions were preserved by storytellers called griots .

Bantu society centered around the age grade , a cohort group that included tribal members of the same age who shared life experiences and responsibilities appropriate to their age group. Woman’s role as a childbearer was highly respected, and women shared in agricultural work, trade, and sometimes military duties. All property was held communally; individual wealth was determined not by the acquisition of property but by the acquisition of slaves.

China and Europe in the Indian Ocean

The disruption of overland trade routes fostered by the decline of Mongol power in Eurasia produced increased commercial vigor in the Indian Ocean. China’s Ming dynasty (1368 to 1644) responded to the fall of the Yuan dynasty by a renewed focus on Indian Ocean trade. In the early fifteenth century, the Ming sent out massive expeditions into the Indian Ocean to display the glories of the Middle Kingdom . In addition to exploring the Indian Ocean, the Chinese expedition entered the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, carrying with them Chinese porcelain and other luxuries to trade for local merchandise. The expeditions were led by Zheng He, a Chinese general of the Muslim faith.

In 1433, the voyages of Zheng He were abruptly called to an end by the Ming emperors. Confucian scholars had long resented the notoriety that Zheng He enjoyed by virtue of his voyages. To this resentment the Ming emperors now added fear of the cost of the expeditions, taking the opinion that the money would be better spent on resisting the continuing Mongol threat against China’s borders and on constructing a new capital at Beijing. Although China now returned to its more traditional policy of isolation, Ming emperors continued to engage in regional trade in Southeast Asia.

Rise of Western Europe

As the Chinese withdrew from world commercial dominance, the nations of Western Europe stepped in to fill the void. By the 1400s, European regional monarchies possessed the political power and financial resources to allow them to investigate the world beyond their borders. European technology had become more sophisticated, and commercial activity in urban areas contributed to its financial stability. European visitors to the Mongol court learned of advances in Asian technology such as the printing press, gunpowder, and the magnetic compass.

In spite of the increased economic vitality enjoyed by Europeans in the early modern era, there remained a serious imbalance of trade between Europe and the East. Although many Europeans craved the luxury goods of the East, Europe offered very few products attractive to the peoples of the East. Europe’s trade goods consisted mainly of items such as wool, honey, salt, copper, tin, and animals for Eastern zoos. The unfavorable balance of trade between Europe and the East meant that Europeans frequently had to pay for their luxury items in gold, a situation that drained Europe of its gold supply.

Although Europe experienced an unfavorable balance of trade with the East, several trading cities in northern Europe capitalized on regional commerce and formed the Hanseatic League . By the thirteenth century, this trade association was active in the Baltic and North Sea regions. Eventually both the Hanseatic League and Italian ships from Mediterranean waters extended their commercial activity to the manufacturing centers of Flanders.

The Renaissance

By the beginning of the fifteenth century, the city-states of northern Italy were experiencing a renewed interest in the learning and artistic styles of the Greco-Roman world. This rebirth of learning, or Renaissance , owed its origins partly to interactions with the Muslim world. European contacts with the Middle East during the Crusades, the preservation of Greco-Roman learning by the Muslims during their occupation of Spain, and Islamic and European interactions in the weakening Byzantine Empire invigorated the revival of learning and trade characteristic of the Renaissance. Furthermore, the northern Italian city-states had become wealthy from their role in supplying goods for the Crusaders and in transporting them across the waters of the Mediterranean.

The Renaissance spirit differed from that of the European Middle Ages by focusing on life in this world rather than in the afterlife. Many Renaissance paintings continued to feature religious subjects; but, at the same time, there was an additional emphasis on paintings of people and nature. Renaissance painting also was characterized by the use of perspective and a greater variety of colors.

Early European Explorations

By the early 1400s, European explorations outside the Mediterranean had been primarily confined to the Atlantic islands of the Azores, Madeiras, and the Canaries. Europeans also had carried out some explorations along the western coast of Africa. Lack of European technological expertise prevented further explorations into the waters of the Atlantic. Contacts with Chinese and Arab merchants introduced Europeans to the magnetic compass, the astrolabe , and the caravel , a lighter vessel with a lateen sail and a steerable rudder.

Voyages of exploration soon changed focus to colonization as Spain and Portugal settled the Canary and Madeira Islands and the Azores. The crop initially grown on these islands was sugar, which had been introduced to Europeans by Middle Eastern peoples during the Crusades. Slaves were brought from northwestern Africa to work the plantations.

Oceania

Two regions that by 1450 remained outside the global network were the Americas and Oceania. (The Americas will be discussed in Chapter 15 .) After 600 CE, the peoples of Polynesia were involved in migration and expansion from island to island in the Pacific. From their base in the islands of Fiji, Samoa, and Tahiti, Polynesians in canoes sailed northward to the uninhabited islands of Hawaii. For several centuries, Polynesians continued to spread throughout the Hawaiian Islands, establishing agricultural and fishing villages. Inhabitants set up regional kingdoms with a highly stratified class system.

About 1200, another group of Polynesians migrated to the islands of present-day New Zealand. The Maori , as these migrants came to be called, learned to adapt to the colder environment of their new home. The Maori set up a stratified society that included slaves.

Rapid Review

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One of the most significant forces in history throughout the mid-fifteenth century was the movement of the Mongols into Russia, the Middle East, and China. While they were responsible for the massacre of hundreds of thousands of peoples who resisted them, especially in the Middle East, the Mongols deserve credit for forging strong trade connections between Europe and Asia. While the Mongols were establishing their presence in Eurasia, the Bantu-speaking peoples were continuing their migrations throughout sub-Saharan Africa, spreading the knowledge of agriculture and ironworking. Their contacts with Arabs in eastern Africa gave birth to a new language: Swahili. In the Indian Ocean, China engaged in massive expeditions, which were abruptly halted about the time that Europe entered the global trade network. Still outside the global network were Polynesia and the Americas. The inhabitants of Polynesia and the Americas interacted with other peoples in their own regions.

Review Questions

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1 . Mongol rule in Russia and China differed in that

  (A) in China, the Mongols maintained Chinese traditions of isolation from foreigners

  (B) Eurasian trade routes under Mongol protection connected Russia more than China to Western European trade routes

  (C) the Mongols became more involved in administration in China than in Russia

  (D) the Mongols were more interested in controlling trade in China than they were in Russia

2 . Historians studying linguistic syncretism would be most interested in

  (A) the voyages of the Malay sailors

  (B) the writings of Renaissance philosophers

  (C) the Polynesian migrations

  (D) the Bantu migrations

3 . The Black Death

  (A) was most devastating in North Africa

  (B) originated in Europe

  (C) changed the course of political institutions

  (D) spread solely along routes of Mongol conquest

4 . The Yuan dynasty was brought down by all of the following EXCEPT

  (A) foreign resistance to the Mongol Peace

  (B) bubonic plague

  (C) economic distress

  (D) inefficient administration

5 . The Renaissance

  (A) was a movement of uniquely Western origins

  (B) began in the Eastern Roman Empire

  (C) was a result of the Crusades

  (D) represented a complete break from medieval traditions

6 . European exploration through the mid-fifteenth century

  (A) produced intense rivalries with East Asian civilizations

  (B) placed merchants in conflict with monarchs

  (C) suffered from a lack of technological expertise

  (D) depended upon the knowledge of the Eastern world

7 . Under Mongol rule in China

  (A) Japan and Vietnam were brought under Mongol control

  (B) Chinese women were placed in a more subordinate position

  (C) Chinese educational traditions were maintained

  (D) Chinese regional rulers were allowed to govern

8 . The influence of nomadic peoples in Eurasia

  (A) created a reciprocal relationship between nomads and settled peoples

  (B) ended with the Mongols

  (C) delayed the interaction of global commercial networks

  (D) brought efficient administration to Eurasia

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . C The Mongols were more involved in profiting from Russian tribute and trade than in administering the Russian people; in China, the Mongols established the Yuan dynasty to rule their subjects. In China, the Mongols encouraged the use of foreign advisers (A). China was part of Eurasian trade routes protected by the Mongols, whereas the Mongols kept Russia isolated from Western European routes (B). The Mongols controlled both Chinese and Russian trade (D).

2 . D The Bantu migrations resulted in the new language of Swahili, which represented syncretism between Bantu languages and Arabic. Although the Malay sailors spread their Austronesian tongue from Malaysia to Madagascar, the resulting language of Madagascar was not a linguistic blend (A). The writings of the Renaissance philosophers were not particularly useful in studying language transmission (B). The Polynesian migrations were not noted for creating linguistic blends (C).

3 . C The Black Death helped bring down the Yuan dynasty and also was a factor in the end of Western European feudalism. The Black Death was more devastating in China, Europe, and the Middle East than in North Africa (A). The Black Death originated in Central Asia, spreading first to China (B). Although the Mongols were the initial transmitters of the bubonic plague, the disease also spread along Mediterranean routes not reached by the Mongols (D).

4 . A The Mongol Peace of the mid-thirteenth to the mid-fourteenth centuries promoted trade connections rather than foreign resistance. The Yuan dynasty fell because of the distress and population losses of the bubonic plague (B) and inefficient administration (D), which resulted in economic problems (C) in China.

5 . C Among the results of the Crusades was renewed Western interest in the splendid cities of the East. Also, the wealth obtained by Italian city-states resulted from acting as suppliers of provisions and transportation for Crusaders. Beginning in the northern Italian city-states (B), the Renaissance was a revival of the Greco-Roman culture that had been preserved by the Muslims in Spain and in the eastern portions of the former Roman Empire (A). Although it dwelled on subjects in this world, the Renaissance continued some medieval traditions by featuring some art of a religious nature (D).

6 . D The technological improvements that propelled Europe into the Age of Exploration were borrowed and adapted from the Arabs and Chinese (C). In the mid-fifteenth century, Europe and East Asia had not yet developed intense rivalries (A). Merchants tended to support monarchs because of the political and economic stability they brought to Europe (B).

7 . D The Mongols relied on China’s regional rulers to help provide an efficient administration. Twice the Mongols failed in their attempt to invade Japan, while Vietnam came under Mongol domination only briefly (A). Mongol culture placed women in a more dominant role than did the Chinese (B). The Chinese civil service exam was not reinstated under Mongol rule (C).

8 . A Nomadic peoples frequently supplemented their diet by trading for the agricultural products of settled peoples. Nomads also sometimes provided horses and camels for trading along established routes. Nomadic influence ended with the invasion of Tamerlane (B). The nomadic Mongols increased the volume of Eurasian trade (C), but they were not noted for their administrative skills (D).

Empires in the Americas

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Before the voyages of Columbus and the conquests of the Spanish, the civilizations and societies of the Americas developed in isolation from the remainder of the world. Within the Western Hemisphere, many of the peoples of the Americas engaged in long-distance as well as regional trade. When the Europeans arrived in the Americas, they encountered not only societies with their own rich traditions but also mighty empires that dazzled their conquerors.

Key Terms

Anasazi

ayllus *

calpulli *

Chimor

chinampas *

Inca*

Mexica*

Mississippians

mita *

Moundbuilders

parallel descent*

Quechua*

quipus *

Toltecs

---

Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

After the decline of Teotihuacán and of the Mayan civilization, nomadic peoples such as the Toltecs moved into central Mexico. Establishing a capital at Tula in the mid-tenth century, the Toltecs created an empire in central Mexico. Their empire included the city of Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán peninsula. The Toltecs carried on long-distance trade, exchanging obsidian from northern Mexico for turquoise obtained from the Anasazi people in present-day southwestern United States. Another legacy of the Toltecs was the legend of the god Quetzalcóatl, a tradition that would circulate among the various inhabitants of Mesoamerica.

Moundbuilders of North America

A second major concentration of pre-Columbian Native Americans was found among the Moundbuilders of North America from about 700 to 1500 CE. Also called the Mississippians , these early Americans established their settlements along major rivers such as the Mississippi and the Ohio. Agricultural people, they constructed large earthen mounds that served as burial places or ceremonial centers. Among the most well-known and largest mounds are those found at Cahokia, in present-day southern Illinois. Some historians believe that the pyramid shape of these mounds suggests contact between the Mississippians and the early peoples of Mesoamerica.

The Rise of the Aztecs

When the Toltec empire fell in the mid-twelfth century, perhaps to invaders, another people called the Aztecs, or Mexica , were a nomadic people migrating throughout central Mexico. By the mid-thirteenth century, they had settled in the valley of Mexico, establishing their capital city at Tenochtitlán about 1325. Constructed on an island in the center of Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlán was linked to the mainland by four causeways. To provide additional land for farming, the Aztecs fashioned chinampas , or platforms constructed of twisted vines on which they placed layers of soil. These garden plots floated in the canals that ran through the city of Tenochtitlán. Maize and beans became the staple crops of the Aztecs. Like other Mesoamerican peoples, they engaged in agriculture and construction without the use of the wheel or large beasts of burden.

By the mid-fifteenth century, the Aztecs had emerged as the dominant power of central Mexico. After conquering neighboring peoples, the Aztecs established a tribute empire. The Aztec military seized prisoners of war for use as human sacrifices. Although seen in other Mesoamerican and South American societies, human sacrifice was most widely practiced among the Aztecs. Sacrifices were carried out atop truncated, or trapezoid-shaped, pyramids in the Mesoamerican tradition. The Aztecs also worshipped the numerous gods of nature of their Mesoamerican predecessors, among them Quetzalcóatl and the rain god Tlaloc. The chief Aztec god was their own deity, Huitzilopochtli, the god of the sun. Human sacrifices were dedicated to this regional god in the belief that the gods were nourished by the sacrifice of human life. Another aspect of Aztec religious life was its calendar, which was similar to that of the Mayans.

Aztec society was stratified, with classes of nobles, peasants, and slaves, who were often war captives. The social structure was further organized into clans, or calpulli , that began as kinship groups but later expanded to include neighboring peoples. Economic life included a marketplace under government regulation that featured items obtained by long-distance trade. Records were kept through a system of picture writing, or hieroglyphics.

Women who died in childbirth were granted the same honored status as soldiers who died in battle. Aztec women who displayed a talent for intricate weaving also were highly regarded. Although Aztec women were politically subordinate to men, they could inherit property and will it to their heirs.

The Incas

Around 1300, about the time that the Aztecs were moving into the central valley of Mexico, the Incas, or Quechua , rose to power in the Andes Mountains of western South America. Their empire, or Twantinsuyu, became a model of organization. Building on the contributions of previous Andean societies, the Incas mastered the integration of diverse peoples within their empire.

The immediate predecessors of the Incas were the Chimor , who established a kingdom along the western coastal region of South America from 900 CE until the Incas conquered them in 1465 by taking over their irrigation system. At the same time, the southern Andean homelands were inhabited by a number of peoples, among them several ayllus , or clans, that spoke the Quechua language. About 1438, under the direction of their ruler, or Inca , called Pachacuti, they gained control of the large area around Lake Titicaca. On the eve of its conquest by the Spanish, the Inca Empire extended from present-day Colombia to the northern portion of Argentina. As a tribute empire it required its subjects to supply the mita , or labor on government-controlled lands.

Structure of the Inca Empire

The most noteworthy achievement of Inca rulers was their ability to integrate approximately 11 million people of diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds under one empire. Unlike the Aztecs, who ruled conquered peoples harshly, the Incas incorporated the conquered into their way of life. The Quechua language was purposely spread throughout the empire to serve as a unifying force. Inca rulers sent groups of Quechua-speaking people to settle throughout the empire to protect it from uprisings among conquered peoples. Another Inca strategy was to settle conquered peoples in an area far from their original homeland. The royal family forged marriage alliances that prevented rivals from obtaining power within their empire.

Although ruins of other urban areas have been discovered, the center of the empire was the capital city of Cuzco. Accurate imperial records were maintained without a system of writing by devices called quipus . Quipus were groups of knotted cords, with the knots of various sizes and colors to represent categories of information, such as finances or religion. The Incas further strengthened the organization of their empire by a dual system of roads, one running across the Andes highlands and the other across the lowlands. Way stations were set up about a day’s walking distance apart to serve citizens and armies traveling these roads.

Inca Society and Religion

A polytheistic people, the Incas centered their worship around the sun god, while the creator god, or Viracocha, was also a key element of Inca religion. Local deities were worshipped as well. Society was organized into clans called ayllus . Women carried out traditional childcare roles, worked in fields, and achieved special recognition for their skill in weaving cloth for religious and state use. Inheritance was organized along lines of parallel descent , with inheritances passed along through both male and female sides of the family.

The Incas based their economy on the cultivation of the potato. They cultivated maize as a supplemental crop. State regulation of trade left little opportunity for long-distance trade, and there was not a separate merchant class among the Incas.

Rapid Review

---

Although the Aztecs built on Mesoamerican tradition to establish a powerful empire in the valley of Mexico, the Andean highlands also saw the emergence of an extremely native empire in the centuries before European conquest. The Aztecs ruled other peoples with brutality, whereas the Incas concentrated on integrating subject peoples into their empire. Aztec peoples engaged in long-distance trade, while the Incas were noted for the careful organization of their empire and their system of roads. In addition to the natives of Mesoamerica and Andean America, native peoples of the Mississippian culture of North America also constructed large mounds used for ceremonial and burial purposes.

Review Questions

---

1 . Both the Aztecs and Incas

  (A) allowed women a significant role in public life

  (B) were originally nomadic people

  (C) built on the traditions of their predecessors

  (D) integrated conquered peoples into their empire

2 . Aztec and Inca religions

  (A) restricted the worship of subject peoples

  (B) stressed a personal relationship with their gods

  (C) placed women in a subordinate position

  (D) reflected the agrarian nature of their respective societies

3 . The natives of North America

  (A) built empires on the scale of those of Mesoamerica

  (B) demonstrated no signs of contact with Mesoamerican or Andean societies or civilizations

  (C) established tribute empires

  (D) used architectural designs similar to those of Mesoamerica

4 . Which of the American societies altered their environment most extensively?

  (A) The Aztecs

  (B) The Mississippians

  (C) The Toltecs

  (D) The Incas

5 . The Aztec and Inca civilizations differed most significantly in their

  (A) religious institutions

  (B) technological skill

  (C) system of recordkeeping

  (D) social structure

6 . Trade among the peoples of the Americas

  (A) united the Chimor and Inca people

  (B) was most similar in the Aztec and Toltec societies

  (C) was facilitated in the Andes by geography

  (D) remained local

7 . Which of the American peoples was closest to the Persians in their administrative style?

  (A) The Mayas

  (B) The Mississippians

  (C) The Aztecs

  (D) The Incas

8 . Both the Aztecs and Incas

  (A) gained the cooperation of subject peoples

  (B) showed limited signs of urbanization

  (C) lacked a merchant class

  (D) were tribute empires

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . C The Aztecs built on a number of Mesoamerican traditions, including polytheism, architectural patterns, the use of a calendar, and the legend of Quetzalcóatl. The Incas continued the use of irrigation systems used by the Chimor, practiced polytheism, and organized their society into ayllus . Although Aztec and Incan women were valued as bearers of children and weavers and both could will property to their heirs, public life was male-dominated in both civilizations (A). Whereas the Aztecs were nomads, the Incas were a settled people (B). Only the Incas integrated conquered peoples into their empire (D).

2 . D Two of the chief gods in the Aztec pantheon were the gods of the sun and of rain; Incan worship centered around the sun. Neither the Aztecs nor the Incas resisted the religious beliefs of subject peoples (A). Their religions were based on the appeasement of the gods, not on a personal relationship with them (B). Aztec and Inca religions did not place women in a subordinate position. Aztec women were respected for their childbearing roles and Inca women received recognition for their skill in weaving cloth for religious use (C).

3 . D The pyramid-shaped mounds of the Mississippian culture were similar to the truncated pyramids of Mesoamerican and Andean societies. This observation has led some historians to suggest contact between the Mississippian culture and those of Mesoamerica and the Andes (B). The natives of North America did not establish tribute empires (C). While they sometimes built up regional confederations, they did not establish empires like those of Mesoamerica (A).

4 . A The Aztecs extensively altered the environment of the central valley of Mexico by building Tenochtitlán on an island in the center of a lake and by constructing causeways to link the city to the mainland. They also constructed chinampas to increase the amount of agricultural land. The mounds of the Mississippians (B), the pyramids of the Toltecs (C), and the roads of the Incas (D), although noteworthy adaptations, did not involve the extensive environmental modifications as did the building of Tenochtitlán.

5 . C Although the Aztecs had a system of picture writing, the Incas, who did not develop a writing system, used quipus to record information. Both civilizations were polytheistic, worshipping gods of nature (A). Technological skill was demonstrated by the Aztecs’ construction of Tenochtitlán and by their pyramids, while the Incas also constructed pyramids in addition to their dual system of roads (B). Both had stratified societies (D) and an economy based largely on agriculture.

6 . B Both the Aztecs and Toltecs participated in long-distance trade. Rather than trade with the Chimor, the Incas conquered their society (A). The rugged Andes hindered trade among Andean societies (C). Although the Inca government did not sponsor long-distance trade (D), both regional and long-distance trade were common in Mesoamerica.

7 . D Like the Persians, the Incas were adept at integrating subject peoples into their empire as long as their subjects refrained from rebellion. Both the Incas and the Persians also constructed roads to serve as communication links to the various parts of their empires. The Aztecs were noted for their exceptionally harsh treatment of conquered peoples (C). The Mayas (A) did not demonstrate the imperial organizational skills of the Incas, while the Mississippians did not establish an empire (B).

8 . D Both collected tribute from subject peoples. The Aztecs were despised by subject peoples (A). Both developed urban centers, most notably their capital cities of Tenochtitlán and Cuzco (B). Only the Incas lacked a merchant class (C).

PERIOD 3 Summary: Regional and Transregional Interactions (c. 600 CE to c. 1450)

Timeline

Key Comparisons

1. Feudalism in Japan and Western Europe

2. Mongol rule in Russia and China

3. Muslim Spain and feudal Europe

4. The spread of Islam and the spread of Buddhism

5. Chinese and European presence in the Indian Ocean

6. Urban areas in the Islamic world, non-Islamic Europe, and China

7. Acceptance of Islam in Africa and Europe

8. Mesoamerican and Andean civilizations

9. Polynesian, Viking, and Bantu migrations

10. Gender roles in early Islam and under the caliphate

Change/Continuity Chart

Empires and Other Political Systems

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: About 1450, a major global transition took place with the withdrawal of the Chinese from global interactions and the rise of European dominance. The Byzantine Empire fell to the power of the Ottoman Turks, an empire that by 1750 was in decline. Russia emerged from Mongol control to forge an empire under the rule of the Romanovs. New patterns of world interactions formed as societies of the Eastern and Western hemispheres exchanged cultural traditions across the Atlantic Ocean.

Key Terms

An asterisk ( *) denotes items listed in the glossary .

absolute monarchy*

boyars*

Cossacks*

criollos (creoles)*

devshirme *

divine right*

Dutch learning*

encomienda *

Enlightenment*

Estates-General*

Glorious Revolution*

Hagia Sophia

Janissaries*

Jesuits*

Manchus*

mercantilism*

mestizos *

Mughal dynasty*

mulato (mulatto)*

nation-state*

parliamentary monarchy*

peninsulares *

purdah*

Qing dynasty

Reconquista (Reconquest)*

repartamiento *

sovereignty*

Taj Mahal

Tokugawa Shogunate

Treaty of Tordesillas*

viceroyalty*

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Spain and Portugal in the Americas

In the mid- and late fifteenth century, events that took place on the Iberian peninsula culminated in an encounter between Western Europe and the Americas. This encounter profoundly altered the government and society of the peoples of the Americas. In the mid-fifteenth century, Portuguese establishment of a navigation school increased exploration of the western and eastern coasts of Africa. The knowledge and wealth obtained from these ventures created further interest in expeditions of exploration and colonization. In Spain, the marriage of Fernando of Aragón and Isabel of Castile in the mid-fifteenth century united the kingdoms of Aragón and Castile. This union gave its support to three significant events in Spanish history in 1492:

• The Reconquista (Reconquest) of former Spanish territory from the Muslims with the fall of Granada.

• The expulsion of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity. Spain would suffer serious economic repercussions with the removal of the Jews, who were some of its most well-educated and skilled people.

• The first voyage of Columbus. The unification of central Spain and the end of warfare with the Muslims freed the Spanish monarchs to turn their attention to voyages of exploration.

The Spanish-sponsored voyage of Ferdinand Magellan, beginning in 1519, not only circumnavigated the globe but also gave Spain a basis for its colonization of the Philippines in the late sixteenth century.

Spain’s Empire

Control in the Caribbean

Spain’s interests in the Americas began in the Caribbean. During his second voyage in 1493, Columbus established a colony on Santo Domingo. In the sixteenth century, the Spaniards took control of Puerto Rico and Cuba and settled Panama and the northern coast of South America. Spanish control of these regions introduced European diseases to the Native Americans, an exchange that significantly decreased the native population. The Spanish crown granted Caribbean natives to the conquerors for use as forced labor.

Conquest in the Americas

In the fifteenth century, the once mighty empires of the Aztecs and Incas fell to the Spaniards. Tales of riches in the interior of Mexico led the Spaniard Hernán Cortés to attempt the conquest of the Aztec Empire. The Spaniards were aided in their venture by several factors:

• Indian allies from among native peoples who had been conquered by the Aztecs.

• The legend of Quetzalcóatl––Moctezuma II, the Aztec leader at the time of the conquest, believed that Cortés may have been the god who was expected to return to Mesoamerica.

• Superior Spanish weaponry.

• The assistance of Malinche (called Doña Marina by the Spanish), an Aztec woman who served as interpreter between the Spanish and the Aztecs.

• Smallpox––introduced into the Aztec Empire by one infected member of the Cortés expedition, it caused the death of thousands.

On the completion of the Aztec conquest in 1521, the capital city of Tenochtitlán was burned to the ground and a new capital, Mexico City, was constructed on its site. The Spaniards then continued their conquests into north central Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.

The Spaniards also turned their attention to the region of the Andes Mountains of western South America. By 1535, Francisco Pizarro had conquered the rich Inca Empire, already weakened by years of civil war. The Spaniards then sent expeditions from northern Mexico into what is now the southwestern portion of the United States. From 1540 to 1542, Francisco de Coronado reached as far north as what is now Kansas in an unsuccessful search for seven mythical cities of gold. Further campaigns of exploration led to the conquest of Chile and the establishment of the city of Buenos Aires in present-day Argentina. By the late sixteenth century, the Spaniards had set up about 200 urban centers in the Americas.

Despite constant threats from Caribbean pirates, Spanish galleons carried loads of gold and silver across the Atlantic Ocean to Spain, where the influx of such large quantities of the precious metals caused inflation of the Spanish economy. Eventually, inflation spread throughout Europe. Until the eighteenth century, the Manila galleons sailed the Pacific, transporting silver from the mines of Spain’s American colonies to China to trade for luxury goods.

The pursuit of gold and adventure was not the sole motive for the founding of a Spanish colonial empire. Another goal was the desire to spread the Roman Catholic faith to native peoples. Roman Catholic religious orders such as the Jesuits , Dominicans, and Franciscans established churches and missions where they educated the Indians and taught them the Christian faith. The Roman Catholic faith became an integral element in the society of the Spanish colonies.

The right of the Spaniards to govern their American colonies was established by papal decree through the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). This agreement divided the newly discovered territories between the Catholic countries of Spain and Portugal by drawing an imaginary line around the globe. Spain received the right to settle the lands to the West of the line drawn through the Western Hemisphere, and Portugal those to the East. Spanish government in the Americas was a massive bureaucracy controlled from Spain by the Council of Indies. The council was further divided into two viceroyalties , one centered in Mexico City and the other in Lima, in present-day Peru.

The economic structure of Spain’s American colonies was the encomienda system. Encomiendas were grants from the Spanish crown that allowed the holders to exploit the Indians living on the land they controlled. In Peru, the exploitation of Indians took the form of the mita, or forced labor, especially in the silver mines. After Father Bartolomé de las Casas spoke out against the mistreatment of the Indians, the encomienda system was restructured as the repartamiento . The new system allowed a small salary to be paid to Indian laborers.

Spanish American Society

Spanish American society took on a hierarchical structure. Four basic classes emerged:

• Peninsulares ––colonists born in Europe. The penisulares initially held the most powerful positions in colonial society.

• Criollos (creoles) ––colonists born in the Americas of European parents. Generally well-educated and financially secure, the creoles would eventually become colonial leaders and organizers of colonial independence movements.

• Mestizos ––people of mixed European and Indian ancestry.

• Mulatos (mulattos) ––people of mixed European and African ancestry. The mestizos and mulatos occupied the lowest political and social positions in Spanish American society.

Families in the Spanish and Portuguese American colonies were patriarchal. Women were expected to devote themselves to traditional household and childbearing duties. Lower-class women worked in the fields and sometimes managed small businesses. Women could control their dowries, however, and also could inherit property.

Portugal’s Empire

The Portuguese colony of Brazil became the first colony based on a plantation economy. Founded by Pedro Cabral in 1500, Brazil was settled in 1532 by Portuguese nobles. Sugar plantations using Indian labor arose; when the Indians died of European diseases, slaves were brought from Africa. Labor in Brazilian gold mines also was supplied by Indians and African slaves. Society in Brazil followed a hierarchy similar to that of the Spanish colonies, and Roman Catholicism was introduced by Jesuit missionaries. In addition to Brazil, the Portuguese Empire included colonies and trade outposts in Africa and Asia.

The Ottoman Empire

The Mongol invasion of eastern Anatolia in 1243 led to the collapse of the Seljuk Turks and the subsequent rise of the Ottoman Turks. The Ottomans migrated into Anatolia to fill the vacuum left by the Seljuks. Named after their leader Osman Bey, the Ottomans established an empire centered around Anatolia. By the late fourteenth century, much of the Balkans were added to the Ottoman Empire.

In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the city of Constantinople. The Christian church of Hagia Sophia was converted into an elaborate mosque, palaces were constructed in the city, and the defense system of Constantinople was repaired. After the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans united most of the Arab world by adding Syria, Egypt, and the rest of North Africa to their empire. In the fifteenth century, they became a major naval power until they suffered a decisive defeat by a combined Venetian and Spanish fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. As late as 1688, the Ottomans threatened the Austrian capital of the Hapsburg dynasty. This siege was not as devastating, however, as a previous siege against Vienna in 1529.

The Ottoman Empire was focused on warfare. Beginning in the middle of the fifteenth century, its armies were largely composed of soldiers called Janissaries . Janissaries were Christian boys who were captured and enslaved. Sometimes the boys were turned over to the Ottomans by their own parents in the hope that the education given to them would lead to a prominent position in the Ottoman Empire. The selection process for the Janissaries was called devshirme; it placed the boys with Turkish families to learn their language and the teachings of Islam.

Women in Ottoman society maintained a subordinate role to their fathers and husbands. Although some women in lower classes became involved in trade and small businesses, Ottoman women as a whole were given very little opportunity to acquire an education or participate in politics. Instead, Ottoman women, especially those in elite classes, were restricted by the wearing of the veil and, in some cases, seclusion within the harem.

Ottoman Decline

By the late seventeenth century, the vast Ottoman Empire was so difficult to administer that it fell into a gradual decline. As opportunities to add new territories ran out because of the strengthening military power of other Muslims and of Christians, the Ottomans lost their ability to maintain their large army and bureaucracy. Taxes charged to the lower classes were raised as Ottoman rulers became more and more corrupt. The inflationary trend that affected Europe as a result of the influx of gold and silver in Spain also produced inflation within the Ottoman territories. The Ottomans fell behind in warfare technology because of their reliance on huge weaponry intended for siege tactics. Ignoring the value of Western technological innovations, the Ottomans also disregarded the growing power of Western Europe, a policy that hastened its decline.

Mughal India

In 1526, Babur, a descendant of Mongols and of Turks, migrated from the steppes of central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. The founder of the Mughal dynasty had lost his kingdom in Central Asia; by 1528, he had used his superior gunpowder technology to conquer a large portion of northern India and had founded a dynasty that would last to the mid-nineteenth century.

The greatest leader of the Mughal dynasty was Akbar (ruled 1560 to 1605). Throughout his reign, he brought more of northern and central India under his control, established a bureaucracy, and patronized the arts. He encouraged cooperation between Hindus and Muslims in India.

Akbar also broke with Hindu and Muslim tradition regarding the treatment of women in society. He encouraged widows to remarry and outlawed sati, the practice among Hindu elite classes of burning women on their husband’s funeral pyre. Akbar also encouraged merchants to arrange market days for women only so that those following the practice of purdah , or confinement in their homes, would have an opportunity to participate in public life. By the declining years of the Mughal Empire, however, the improvements in the position of women had largely been discontinued.

Mughal art and architecture often blended Muslim styles with those of other societies. Mughal artists were known for their miniatures, some of which included Christian religious subjects. Mughal architecture blended the white marble typical of Indian architecture with the arches and domes of the Islamic world. Probably the most well-known architectural structure of the Mughal era was the Taj Mahal , constructed by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

The cost of warfare and defensive efforts to protect the northern borders of the Mughal Empire contributed to its decline. Later Mughal rulers failed to bridge the differences between Muslims and Hindus. Centralized government broke down as India returned to numerous local political organizations. The decline of centralized authority opened doors for the entrance of foreign powers, especially the British.

Monarchies in France and England

In the sixteenth century, European monarchies expanded their power dramatically. Characteristics of these monarchies were:

• Maintenance of strong armies

• Establishment of elaborate bureaucracies

• High taxes to support the frequent wars on the European continent

In France, a system of absolute monarchy arose as monarchs stopped convening the Estates-General , the medieval parliament. In addition to the characteristics of monarchs listed above, absolute monarchs believed in a concept called the divine right of kings. Divine right held that monarchs were granted their right to rule by God. Territorial expansion was a goal of the strong military that the absolute monarchies assembled. The most noteworthy of European absolute monarchs was Louis XIV of France (ruled 1643 to 1715), who not only adhered to the doctrine of divine right but also lived extravagantly in his palace at Versailles outside Paris. Keeping with absolutist tradition, Louis XIV also spent huge sums on the military in order to carry out numerous wars to expand French territory.

The prevailing economic theory of the day, called mercantilism , encouraged nations to export more than they imported and promoted the founding of colonies. Colonies provided raw materials and ready markets for the manufactured goods produced by the mother country.

The English developed a different model of monarchy in the seventeenth century: parliamentary monarchy . Although ruled by a centralized government, England limited the power of its monarchs with a parliament in which they shared power with representatives chosen by voters from the elite classes. The English Civil War (1642 to 1649) and the Glorious Revolution of 1689 placed the power of parliament over that of the king. The English parliament met regularly without the consent of the monarch and also retained the authority to tax and appropriate tax revenues.

Development of European Nation-States

Government in Europe was organized around the nation-state . Well suited to a continent composed of various cultural groups, a nation-state is defined as a political unit that:

• Governs people who share a common culture, including a common language

• Has definite geographic boundaries

• Enjoys sovereignty

European nation-states were governed by either absolute or parliamentary monarchs. The number of nation-states on the small European continent, however, created rivalries and divisions that often led to war.

The Russian Empire

Russia followed the path of absolute monarchy after the final expulsion of the Mongols in 1480. The Mongol occupation of Russia produced a nation with a weakened emphasis on education, and also depressed trade and manufacturing. Under the tsars Ivan III (the Great) and Ivan IV (the Terrible), Russia expanded from the eastern border of Poland into western Siberia across the Ural Mountains. Russian pioneers called Cossacks were sent to the newly conquered territories, taking over land previously held by Asian nomads. In the process of expanding its borders, Russia added a substantial Muslim minority to its population.

The death of Ivan IV without an heir paved the way for the emergence of the Romanov dynasty. In 1613, the Russian nobles, or boyars , selected Mikhail Romanov as Russia’s new tsar, beginning a dynasty that ruled until 1917. The new tsar continued Russian expansion, adding part of the Ukraine around Kiev and also southern territory that extended to the frontier of the Ottoman Empire. Later Romanovs created state control over the Russian Orthodox Church.

Peter the Great

In 1700, the Russian Empire remained agricultural to a larger extent than East Asian empires or Western European nations. Peter I (the Great), who ruled from 1689 to 1725, launched a new era in Russian history by opening up the country to Western influence. On a trip to Western Europe in a vain attempt to enlist support against the Turks, Peter acquired an appreciation for Western science and technology. When he returned to Russia, he took Western craftsmen with him. In order to bolster trade, Peter fought a war with Sweden in which he not only greatly reduced the military power of Sweden but also gained for Russia a warm water port on the Baltic Sea. Peter also moved his capital from Moscow to a new city on the Baltic that he named St. Petersburg. He then created a navy for Russia. Continuing his policy of westernization, Peter required boyars to shave their beards and wear Western clothing. He also brought the ballet from France to Russia and allowed women of elite classes to attend public events for the first time.

In spite of his interest in Western technology, Peter the Great did not accept Western democratic trends. Unimpressed with parliamentary government, he continued to favor absolute monarchy. He set up controls over his subjects by creating a secret police and encouraged the continuation of serfdom. Serfdom, which differed from slavery in binding laborers to the land only, kept the Russian economy focused on agriculture, in spite of the westernization policies of Peter the Great.

Catherine II (the Great), who ruled from 1729 to 1796, continued the expansionist and westernization policies of Peter. Laws restricting serfs were harsher than before. Catherine upheld the concept of absolute monarchy but also brought ideas of the Enlightenment (see Chapter 19 ) to Russia. She reduced severe punishments for crimes in order to bring the Russian justice system more in line with that of Western Europe and encouraged Western art and architecture. Catherine added new territory in the Crimea, Alaska, and northern California to the Russian Empire.

Ming China

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, a warlord who had assisted in the expulsion of the Mongols from China. The Ming dynasty, which reacted against Mongol rule by returning to Chinese tradition, lasted from 1368 to 1644. Under Ming rule:

• The revered position of the scholar-gentry was restored.

• The Confucian-based civil service exam was reinstated and expanded. Women, however, continued to be banned from taking the exam.

• Public officials who were corrupt or incompetent were beaten publicly.

• Thought control, or censorship of documents, was sanctioned by the government.

• Neo-Confucianism, which supported strict obedience to the state, increased its influence.

• Women continued to occupy a subordinate position in the strongly patriarchal society.

Between 1405 and 1423, the Ming dynasty, under the leadership of Zheng He, engaged in several major expeditions of exploration and trade. Designed to impress the remainder of the Eastern Hemisphere with the glories of Ming China, the Zheng He expeditions sailed through the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Persian Gulf. By the 1430s, however, the scholar-gentry had persuaded Ming leaders that the expeditions were too costly in light of the need to spend the empire’s funds on restraining continued Mongol threats to China’s northern border.

In the late sixteenth century, Jesuits such as the scholar Matteo Ricci were allowed to enter China. More interested in the Jesuits’ transmission of scientific and technological knowledge than in Christian theology, the Ming Chinese allowed some Jesuits to remain in China throughout the Ming era.

During the last 200 years of the Ming dynasty, China was ruled by incompetent rulers. The maintenance of dams, dikes, and irrigation systems was neglected, and nomadic peoples continued to exert pressure along the Great Wall. In 1644, the Jurchen, or Manchus , a nomadic people on China’s northern borders, conquered the Ming dynasty. The new Qing dynasty ruled until the early twentieth century as the last Chinese dynasty.

Japan

While the Ming dynasty isolated itself from most foreigners, Japan went through periods of both isolation and acceptance of Western influence. In 1603, the Tokugawa family gained prominence when one of its members acquired the title of shogun . Ruling Japan from the city of Edo (present-day Tokyo), the Tokugawa Shogunate brought a degree of centralized authority to Japan. Large estates of many of the daimyo were broken up and taken over by the Tokugawa family.

Europeans entered Japan in 1543 when Portuguese sailors shipwrecked and were washed up on the shore of the southern island of Kyushu. Additional visits from European traders and missionaries brought Western technology, including clocks and firearms, into Japan. The use of firearms changed Japanese warfare from feudal to modern and assisted the Tokugawa in maintaining their authority. When Christian missionaries arrived to bring Roman Catholicism to the Japanese, the Tokugawa at first protected them from Buddhist resistance. In the late 1580s, however, the Tokugawa stifled Buddhist resistance to their authority. Christianity was perceived as a threat to Tokugawa authority, and Christian missionaries were ordered to leave Japan. Japanese Christians were persecuted and executed. By 1630, foreign trade was allowed only in a few cities and Japanese ships were banned from trading or sailing across long distances. By the 1640s, only the Dutch and Chinese were allowed to trade through the port of Nagasaki. Contacts with the Dutch allowed the Japanese to keep informed about Western developments (Dutch learning ) and adopt those they considered appropriate to Japanese goals.

Rapid Review

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Western Europe developed models of both absolute and parliamentary monarchy as its advanced technology strengthened its position as a world leader. Russia built a large empire whose rulers continued repressive policies and a system of serfdom that perpetuated Russian backwardness begun under Mongol rule. Spain and Portugal established empires in Mesoamerica and South America, while England and France vied for colonial dominance in North America. The Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine Empire, but by the early seventeenth century, could not keep up with Western technological advances and was on a path of decline. Ming China and Tokugawa Japan displayed varying responses to foreign influence. At the conclusion of the period, the Chinese pursued a policy of isolation from foreigners, whereas Japan allowed limited Western influence in order to avail itself of Western technology. Mughal India at first brought centralized government that softened relations between Hindus and Muslims; then later it broke up into regional governments that created openings for foreign intervention.

Review Questions

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1 . Mercantilism

  (A) brought long-term prosperity to Europe

  (B) encouraged the importation of foreign goods

  (C) supported free trade

  (D) sparked further rivalries among European nations

2 . In the early eighteenth century, the political system where citizens enjoyed the greatest amount of self-rule was

  (A) Japan

  (B) Russia

  (C) France

  (D) England

3 . Both the Russian Empire and Ming China

  (A) became increasingly more traditional after the expulsion of the Mongols

  (B) improved the position of women in the period 1450 to 1750

  (C) established policies that were a reaction to the Mongol presence in central Asia

  (D) cooperated with the established religions in their respective countries

4 . A comparison of the reactions of Japan and China to European influence in the period 1450 to 1750 shows that

  (A) the Chinese persecuted Christian missionaries about the same time that the Japanese gave them some acceptance

  (B) Japan saw the need for knowledge of Western developments, but China did not

  (C) both excluded foreigners from trading at their ports

  (D) European philosophy was accepted, but Western technology was not

5 . Compared to the Spanish Empire, that of the Portuguese

  (A) developed a more egalitarian society

  (B) was more global in its extent

  (C) was less influenced by the Roman Catholic Church

  (D) developed a better relationship with Indian inhabitants

6 . The Mughal Empire

  (A) failed to ease tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India

  (B) controlled the entire Indian subcontinent

  (C) terminated in the return of a traditional centralized government to India

  (D) produced art and architecture that reflected syncretism

7 . The Ottoman Empire

  (A) weakened because its technology fell behind that of Europe

  (B) unlike the Mughal Empire, was not a gunpowder empire

  (C) was unsuccessful in controlling European territory

  (D) reached its height around 1750

8 . The nation-state

  (A) was embraced by the Ottoman Empire

  (B) arose in Europe because of its diversity of cultural groups

  (C) was incompatible with absolute monarchies

  (D) promoted harmony among Europeans

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D Inherent in mercantile philosophy was the need for colonies, a necessity that provoked international rivalries. Spain’s wealth caused a European depression rather than long-term prosperity (A). Mercantilism encouraged exports rather than imports (B) and government participation in economic matters rather than free trade (C).

2 . D In the early 1700s, England had already established the sovereignty of Parliament, whose members were elected by the elite classes. Russia (B) and France (C) were under the authority of absolute monarchs who ruled without parliamentary authority. Japan (A) was ruled by the authoritarian Tokugawa Shogunate.

3 . C The emperors of Ming China returned to Confucian traditions and by the 1430s had entered a period of isolation as a response to Mongol threats along China’s northern borders. Russia reacted to the previous Mongol occupation by establishing absolute rule and expanding its territories to include land previously held by Asian nomadic peoples. Although Ming China became increasingly more traditional, Russia eventually entered into a period of increased westernization (A). Although Russia allowed women more participation in public events, the subordinate position of women in China was continued by the strict Confucian and Neo-Confucian policies under the Ming (B). Although the Ming cooperated with Confucianists and Neo-Confucianists because of their respect for governmental authority, Russian tsars placed the Russian Orthodox Church under their authority (D).

4 . B Although both countries entered into a period of isolation, Japan maintained some contact with Western ways through trade with the Dutch. In the 1580s, Japan persecuted Christian missionaries while China gave them some acceptance (A). China retained two ports for foreigners, whereas Japan kept only the port of Nagasaki open to trade with the Dutch and Chinese (C). Western philosophy was not embraced by either country, but there was interest in Western technology, particularly firearms in Japan and clocks in China (D).

5 . B Although the Spanish Empire embraced only the Philippines and the Americas, the Portuguese Empire included Brazil, outposts in Africa and India, and trading posts throughout the Indian Ocean and East Asia. Both the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires had a stratified society (A). Both were Roman Catholic empires with active missionary efforts; both nations had submitted to the pope’s authority in accepting the Treaty of Tordesillas (C). Both empires first used Indians as forced labor (D).

6 . D Mughal art and architecture reflected Christian themes and Persian and Indian architectural structures. Under Akbar, cooperation between Muslims and Hindus was encouraged (A). The Mughals controlled the northern and central portions of India (B). Their rule ended in the return of traditional regional government in India (C).

7 . A The Ottoman decline was hastened because of Ottoman reluctance to embrace Western technology of the time period. Both the Ottomans and Mughals were gunpowder empires (B). The Ottomans gained control of Hungary and some parts of the Balkans (C), but was in decline by 1750 (D).

8 . B Nation-states are organized around cultural groups, a characteristic of Europe. The Ottoman Empire included numerous cultural groups under one empire (A). Many of the European nation-states were ruled by absolute monarchs (C). The different nation-states in Europe contributed to conflict (D).

Hemispheric Exchange

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The period from 1450 to 1750 was one of increased global exchange. While some regions such as China gradually withdrew from long-distance trade, the volume of trade in the Indian Ocean increased with the entry of Europeans into waters that already saw bustling commercial activity among Indian, Muslim, and African peoples. To the trade of the Eastern Hemisphere were added vast interchanges between the Eastern and Western hemispheres across the Atlantic Ocean.

Key Terms

c apitalism*

caravel*

Columbian Exchange*

factor*

Northwest Passage*

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Trading Companies

As European nation-states grew more powerful and involved in colonial expansion, their governments formed trading companies. The governments of Spain, the Netherlands, England, and France gave regional monopolies to these companies. Among the two most prominent companies were the British East India Company, which concentrated on trade in India and North America, and the Dutch East India Company, which focused on trade with Indonesia. With the origin of the great trading companies came increased consumption of Eastern products such as coffee, tea, and sugar. The growth of trade and commerce fostered the growth of capitalism , an economic system that is based on the private ownership of property and on investments with the hope of profit.

European Explorations

Technological inventions such as the caravel , magnetic compass, and astrolabe, adopted from the Eastern world by the Europeans in the early fifteenth century, facilitated the entrance of Europe into expeditions of exploration. Portugal had already sailed along the western coast of Africa in the early fifteenth century, trading gold and crude iron pots for spices and slaves. The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope to India in 1498 broke the Muslim and Italian monopolies on trade with the Middle East, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. One Portuguese expedition was blown off course and landed in Brazil, giving Portugal a claim to territory in the Western Hemisphere. The Portuguese continued their commercial interests by setting up forts and trading posts on the eastern African coast and also in India at the port of Goa. Portugal also traded in the port of Malacca in Indonesia. From the Chinese port of Macao it entered into trade between Japan and China.

Columbus’s rediscovery of the Americas for Spain in 1492 was followed by the Magellan expedition’s circumnavigation of the globe, which gave Spain claim to the Philippine Islands. In the sixteenth century, the states of northern Europe joined in voyages of exploration. The defeat of the Spanish Armada by the English navy in 1588 made England the foremost naval power among the European nations.

Both the French and the British turned their attentions to North America, creating rivalries that erupted in warfare in the latter part of the eighteenth century. In 1534, France claimed present-day Canada. In the seventeenth century, the French established settlements and fur-trading outposts in the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. During the sixteenth century, the British had explored the Hudson Bay area of North America in search of a Northwest Passage to the Indies. In the seventeenth century, England established colonies along the east coast of North America to provide the raw materials and markets that were a part of its mercantilist policy.

The Netherlands, which had recently won its independence from Spain, set up colonies in North America and, for a brief time, in Brazil. The Dutch demonstrated their power in the Indian Ocean by removing the Portuguese competition in Indonesia in the early seventeenth century. In 1652, they established Cape Colony, a settlement at the southern tip of Africa, using it primarily as a supply station for ships sailing to Indonesia.

The Columbian Exchange

The voyages of Columbus to the Americas initiated a system of exchange between the Eastern and Western hemispheres that had a major impact on the Atlantic world. The Columbian Exchange was a trade network that exchanged crops, livestock, and diseases between the two hemispheres. Tobacco was introduced to the Eastern Hemisphere. American food crops such as maize and sweet potatoes spread to China and parts of Africa. White potatoes spread to Europe, and manioc to Africa. The introduction of new food crops tended to boost population growth in the Eastern Hemisphere. Coffee, sugarcane, wheat, rice, and bananas made their way across the Atlantic from the Eastern to the Western Hemisphere. The indigenous people of the Americas, however, were largely uninterested in the food crops introduced by Europeans. Sugarcane cultivation was eventually transferred to Brazil and the Caribbean islands, and raw sugar was sold to the Eastern Hemisphere.

The Columbian Exchange brought livestock such as cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs to the Americas. The horse revolutionized the lifestyle of the nomadic Plains Indians of North America by facilitating the hunting of buffalo.

Epidemic disease also found its way to the Americas through the Columbian Exchange. Prior to the voyages of Columbus, the peoples of the Americas had lived in virtual isolation from the rest of the world, a situation that prevented their exposure to the diseases of the populations of the Eastern Hemisphere. When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they brought with them common diseases to which the Native Americans had developed no immunity: diseases such as smallpox, measles, tuberculosis, and influenza. Within 50 years after the voyages of Columbus, approximately 90 percent of American native peoples had died, most of them from epidemic disease.

Patterns of World Trade

By the seventeenth century, Europeans had established ports in East Asia, Southeast Asia, India, and the west coast of Africa. In general, involvement in international trade positively affected local and regional economies. In areas where direct trade was not possible, Europeans negotiated special economic rights. In Russia, Western European shippers known as factors established agencies in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In the Ottoman Empire, Western European traders formed colonies within the city of Constantinople where they were granted commercial privileges.

Regions Outside the World Trade System

Until the eighteenth century, large regions of the world lay outside the international trade system. China relied primarily on regional trade, channeling most of its commercial activity through the port of Macao. One reason for China’s limits on trade with Europe was disinterest in European products. As a result, Europeans paid for the few items they purchased from China with silver, which was the basis of the Chinese economy. England and the Netherlands compensated for the expense of acquiring fine Chinese porcelain by developing their own porcelain modeled after Chinese patterns. Tokugawa Japan also prohibited foreign trade except for limited commercial activity with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki.

Other world regions carried on only limited long-distance trade. Russia traded primarily with the nomads of Central Asia until the eighteenth century, when it began trading grain to the West. The Ottomans, who dismissed the impact of European technology, showed little enthusiasm for trade with the West. Mughal India encouraged trade with the West but was more preoccupied with imperial expansion. Whereas some trading ports were established by Europeans along Africa’s west coast, Europeans were deterred from entering the continent by the risk of contracting malaria and by the lack of navigable rivers.

Rapid Review

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The increased level of exchange between the Eastern and Western hemispheres began with the voyages of Columbus. Crops, livestock, and diseases changed the demographics on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonies furthered the interchange between the two hemispheres. Some areas such as Japan and China remained largely outside global trade networks, whereas regions such as Russia and the Ottoman Empire concentrated on regional trade.

Review Questions

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1 . European explorations

  (A) were dependent on European technological innovation

  (B) promoted harmony among the nations of Europe

  (C) sought to break established trade monopolies

  (D) concentrated on the Americas

2 . The Columbian Exchange

  (A) improved the nutrition of American indigenous peoples

  (B) did not involve Africa

  (C) drew the world’s oceans into an active trade network

  (D) produced both positive and adverse effects on world population

3 . The English and French engaged in rivalries over territory in

  (A) Indonesia

  (B) China

  (C) North America

  (D) East Africa

4 . The region with the greatest number of colonial and commercial competitors was

  (A) the western coast of Africa

  (B) Indonesia

  (C) the Caribbean islands

  (D) the Philippines

5 . The Netherlands established commercial or colonial interests in all of the following areas EXCEPT

  (A) southern Africa

  (B) western Africa

  (C) North America

  (D) Japan

6 . Which of the following regions sustained trade patterns that were the most different from the others before the eighteenth century?

  (A) Japan

  (B) Indonesia

  (C) China

  (D) Russia

7 . Which crop arrived in the Americas as part of the Columbian Exchange and later became a key product of the Americas?

  (A) Tobacco

  (B) Sugar

  (C) Sweet potatoes

  (D) Manioc

8 . As a result of hemispheric trade between 1450 and 1750

  (A) the entire globe was linked by numerous active trade routes

  (B) European governments lost influence to the power of the great trading companies

  (C) the work of African artisans found new markets

  (D) European wealth and commercial dominance increased

Answers and Explanations

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1 . C The Portuguese more than other nations attempted to break the trade monopolies of the Muslims and Italian merchants in the Indian Ocean and succeeded with the voyage of da Gama. The English also sought a northwest passage to the East in order to break up trade monopolies. European technology depended on inventions from the Muslim and Chinese worlds (A). Exploration promoted rivalry rather than harmony among the nations of Europe, as in the case of competition between England and Spain that led to the defeat of the Spanish Armada (B). Europeans concentrated on African and Indian Ocean trade as well as trade with the Americas (D).

2 . D While the influx of added nutrients tended to increase populations of the Eastern Hemisphere, American indigenous populations were devastated by disease. American natives were not widely interested in the food crops of Europeans (A). Africa benefited from the introduction of manioc from the Americas (B). The Columbian Exchange centered on trade across the Atlantic Ocean (C).

3 . C Rivalries between France and England were intense in North America. The French were not involved in Indonesian trade (A), or in trade with China (B) or East Africa (D).

4 . B Indonesian trade involved Muslims, Chinese, Dutch, Portuguese, East African, Southeast Asian, and English traders. The western coast of Africa was primarily the domain of Portugal (A). The Caribbean islands were opened up to Portuguese, English, and French trade (C). The Philippines were controlled by Spain (D).

5 . B The Portuguese, not the Dutch, established trade contacts in western Africa. The Dutch established Cape Colony in southern Africa as a way station (A). They also had a colony in North America for a few years (C) and established trade relations with Tokugawa Japan (D).

6 . D Russian trade was local and regional during this time period. Japan (A) and China (C) both engaged in regional trade and in limited long-distance trade. Indonesian trade actively involved a number of European and eastern nations (B).

7 . B Sugar was transferred from the Middle East to the Mediterranean, then to Brazil and the Caribbean islands, where it became a major export crop to the Eastern Hemisphere. Tobacco (A), sweet potatoes (C), and manioc (D) were exchanged from the Western Hemisphere.

8 . D European profits and global dominance increased as a result of its interests in exploration, trade, and colonization. Many regions such as Russia, Japan, China, Mughal India, parts of Africa, and the Ottoman Empire were outside global trade networks (A). The great trading companies were controlled by their respective governments (B). African trade involved primarily slaves, with little global interest in African art (C).

Systems of Slavery

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: As the Columbian Exchange united the Eastern and Western hemispheres across the Atlantic Ocean, the exchange of human beings created a new interaction between Africa and the Western Hemisphere. Slave systems, already a part of life in African kingdoms, became a part of life in the Western world. The result was the unification of three cultures—African, European, and American—in the Americas.

Key Terms

impressment*

indentured servitude*

Middle Passage*

triangular trade*

---

Beginnings of the Atlantic Slave Trade

Portugal’s quest for gold and pepper from African kingdoms brought it into contact with systems of slave trade already in existence in Africa. The subsequent development of the trans-Atlantic slave trade was an extension of trade in human beings already carried out by Africans enslaving fellow Africans. The slave trade within Africa especially valued women slaves for use as household servants or as members of the harem.

The long-existent trans-Saharan trade had already brought some African slaves to the Mediterranean world. In the mid-fifteenth century, Portugal opened up direct trade with sub-Saharan Africa. Portuguese and Spanish interests in the slave trade increased when they set up sugar plantations on the Madeira and Canary Islands and on São Tomé. The first slaves from Africa arrived in Portugal in the mid-1400s. Europeans tended to use Africans as household servants.

Trade in gold, spices, and slaves brought the Portuguese into contact with prosperous and powerful African kingdoms, among them Kongo, Benin, Mali, and Songhay. Mali and Songhay had already become wealthy Muslim kingdoms enriched by the trans-Saharan gold-salt trade that had been in existence for centuries. In Kongo and Benin, Portugal was interested in Christianizing the inhabitants in addition to establishing trade relations. In the late fifteenth century, the rulers of Kongo had converted to Christianity; a few years later the nonruling classes were also converted.

Characteristics of African Kingdoms

Many of the African kingdoms encountered by the Portuguese had developed their own political and court traditions. African monarchs often ruled with the assistance of governing councils and had centralized governments with armies that carried out the state’s expansionist policies. Artisans produced works in ivory and ebony and, in Benin, also in bronze. Active trade existed not only in slaves but also in spices, ivory, and textiles. Slaves usually were prisoners of war or captives from African slave raids that were carried out against neighboring kingdoms and villages.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

After Native Americans died in phenomenal numbers from European diseases, European colonists in the Americas turned to Africans as forced labor. West Africans, already skilled in agricultural techniques, were especially sought by Europeans for labor on the sugar plantations of Brazil and the Caribbean and in the rice fields of the southern colonies of British North America. The trans-Atlantic slave trade reached its peak during the eighteenth century. The slave trade was part of a triangular trade that involved three segments:

• European guns and other manufactured goods were traded to Africans for slaves. (Guns were then used by Africans to capture more slaves.)

• Slaves were transported from Africa to South America or the West Indies. This Middle Passage across the Atlantic placed the slaves in shackles in overcrowded and unsanitary slave ships.

• Sugar, molasses, and rum produced by slave labor were traded to Europe for manufactured goods, and the cycle resumed.

Slaves who crossed the Atlantic came from western and central Africa, particularly from Senegambia, Dahomey, Benin, and Kongo. As many as 25 percent of the slaves who came from central Africa died on the long march to the coast to be loaded onto slave ships. Perhaps 20 percent of slaves died on the Middle Passage from illness or suicide. If supplies ran low aboard ship, some slaves were thrown overboard.

Of the approximately 9 to 11 million slaves who crossed the Atlantic, only about 5 percent reached the colonies of British North America. Most of the slaves who eventually reached North America did not arrive directly from Africa, but first spent some time in the West Indies in the Caribbean Sea. The rigors of sugar production in the Caribbean islands and in Brazil required especially large numbers of slaves.

Once in the Americas, African slaves blended their culture with that of the Western Hemisphere. Particularly noteworthy was their introduction of African religions to the Americas. Slaves from West Africa often continued to practice Islam in addition to native African beliefs, while others created a syncretism of native African practices and beliefs and those of Christianity.

Slavery in Eastern and Southern Africa

Not all slave routes originating in Africa crossed the Atlantic or led to Europe. The cities of eastern Africa traded with the interior of the continent for gold, ivory, and slaves. Many of these slaves were transported to the Middle East, where they became household servants or members of harems. Other slaves in the Indian Ocean system were used on European plantations on islands in the Indian Ocean. Africans from the Swahili coast, Arabs, and Indians also set up plantation colonies along the eastern coast of Africa and on the islands of the Indian Ocean.

In southern Africa, the Cape Colony established by the Dutch in 1652 depended on slave labor. The first slaves arrived from Indonesia and Asia, but later the Dutch enslaved Africans.

Effects of the Slave Trade on Africa

The African slave trade profoundly altered the demographics of Africa. Family life was disrupted as more males than females were transported across the Atlantic for the heavy work required on plantations. In some areas of Africa, populations were reduced by one-half. The slave trade increased African dependency on the importation of European technology, lessening the technological development of African kingdoms.

Other Forms of Servitude

In addition to their involvement in both the Mediterranean and trans-Atlantic slave trades, Europeans used other forms of servitude such as impressment and indentured servitude . Impressment involved the seizure of sailors from foreign vessels. Indentured servants were required to work for a master for a specific number of years in exchange for passage to a European colony such as the English colonies of northeastern North America.

Rapid Review

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Europeans did not initiate the African slave trade but tapped into slave trade systems already in place. Europeans involved in the slave trade encountered wealthy and powerful African kingdoms. Although the main focus of the African slave trade in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries occurred across the Atlantic, there also was an active slave trade in the Indian Ocean. The slave trade significantly reduced the populations of some areas of Africa and created a dependence on European goods.

Review Questions

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1 . African kingdoms in the period from 1450 to 1750

  (A) featured monarchs who ruled without advisers

  (B) frequently enslaved their own people

  (C) like the Chinese, were not interested in European trade goods

  (D) were involved in the slave trade before the arrival of Europeans

2 . Compared to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, that of eastern Africa

  (A) involved only European nations

  (B) acquired slaves from coastal areas only

  (C) did not involve central Africa

  (D) also involved the plantation system

3 . Within Africa, the slave trade

  (A) increased African dependence on European nations

  (B) decreased the value of women slaves

  (C) had little effect on central African kingdoms

  (D) promoted unity among African kingdoms

4 . Historians searching for the earliest models of European plantation slavery would need to study

  (A) plantation society on Indian Ocean islands

  (B) the history of the Madeira and Canary Islands

  (C) sugar plantations in the West Indies

  (D) cotton plantations in British North America

5 . The African slave trade

  (A) had no ties to Middle Eastern trade

  (B) was frequently the result of African rivalries

  (C) was abolished by the Dutch in southern Africa

  (D) was limited to the Atlantic Ocean

6 . The trans-Atlantic slave trade

  (A) produced average mortality rates of over 50 percent along the Middle Passage

  (B) carried the majority of slaves to North America

  (C) increased after the establishment of sugar plantations

  (D) carried more women than men

7 . When the Portuguese first became involved in the slave trade

  (A) they were uninterested in Christianizing African peoples

  (B) they were interested primarily in gold and spices

  (C) they were amazed at the poverty of African kingdoms

  (D) they created the African slave trade

8 . Sugar plantations

  (A) were initially founded in the Caribbean

  (B) required fewer slaves than the cotton and rice fields of North America

  (C) were the ultimate destination of the first Portuguese slaves

  (D) especially valued slaves from western Africa

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D Trans-Saharan and Middle Eastern trade routes existed before 1450. African monarchs tended to rule with councils of advisers (A). Africans seldom enslaved their own people, usually enslaving prisoners of war or captives from raiding parties on neighboring tribes or kingdoms (B). African traders became dependent on European goods they received in exchange for slaves (C).

2 . D Both the trans-Atlantic and eastern African trade routes took slaves to European-run plantations. Eastern African slave trade involved Africans, Indians, and Arabs also (A). It involved both coastal and island areas (B). Slaves were captured from central Africa before being taken to the coast (C).

3 . A Guns purchased from European nations were used by Africans to acquire more slaves within Africa. Within Africa, slave women were valued as household servants (B). Central African kingdoms were often the source of slaves for trade across the oceans and within Africa (C). The slave trade increased African rivalries (D).

4 . B The earliest models of European plantations were established on the Madeira and Canary Islands. Plantations in the Indian Ocean (A), the West Indies (C), and British North America (D) occurred later.

5 . B African rulers often raided neighboring villages in order to secure the wealth and power of slaves. Indian Ocean trade took slaves from East Africa to the Middle East (A). The Dutch enslaved Africans in Cape Colony (C). The Indian Ocean was another site of active slave trade (D).

6 . C The sugar plantations of the Caribbean and Brazil were the primary destination of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Middle Passage mortality rates averaged about 20 percent (A). Only about 5 percent of slaves crossing the Atlantic were sent to North America (B). It involved more men than women (D).

7 . B Portugal was interested in the gold and spice trade before it was concerned with the slave trade. The Portuguese were interested in bringing Christianity to Africa (A). They found wealthy and powerful African kingdoms (C), and tapped into already existing slave routes (D).

8 . D Western Africans were already accomplished farmers. The first sugar plantations were founded off the coast of Africa (A). They required the most slaves of any crop because of the rigors of sugar cultivation (B). The first Portuguese slaves were destined for the households of Europe (C).

Cultural and Intellectual Changes

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The transformations in the formation of empires, in the slave trade, and in hemispheric connections took place against a backdrop of cultural and intellectual changes. In Europe, a spirit of religious reform created new religious denominations and promoted education. A scientific revolution provided new explanations for the nature of the universe, while Enlightenment philosophers analyzed the nature of political relationships. Enlightenment ideas spread through Europe, Russia, and the Western Hemisphere.

Key Terms

Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)*

commercial revolution*

Deism*

empirical research*

Enlightenment*

excommunication*

heliocentric theory*

indulgence*

laissez-faire economics*

natural laws*

Ninety-Five Theses

Northern Renaissance*

philosophes *

predestination*

Protestant Reformation*

Scientific Revolution*

Society of Jesus

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Protestant and Catholic Reformations

The Renaissance, which began in the city-states of northern Italy, gradually spread to the states of northern Europe. The Northern Renaissance was characterized by a more intense religious devotion than the Italian Renaissance. In 1517, to finance the restoration of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, the Roman Catholic Church authorized the sale of indulgences . Indulgences were documents that granted the purchaser the forgiveness of sins. A German priest and former monk named Martin Luther nailed the Ninety-Five Theses , or statements for debate, to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in present-day Germany. Luther’s studies of the Bible had led him to believe that salvation was obtained only through faith in Jesus Christ as the savior of the world from sin and was not dependent on following Church practices and traditions. Roman Catholic opposition to Luther’s teachings led to his eventual excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther’s ideas spread widely throughout Europe as a result of the introduction of movable type, an adaptation of Chinese printing technology, by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-fifteenth century. Gutenberg also used the new printing technology to produce The Gutenberg Bible, written in Latin, about 1455.

The Protestant Reformation gained popularity not only for its religious teaching but also because of the political climate in Europe in the sixteenth century. A new wave of nationalism was sweeping through Europe, including the German states, which were part of the Holy Roman Empire. Many Germans resented the authority of the pope and welcomed Protestantism for this reason. Protestantism also looked more favorably on Christian participation in commercial and money-making ventures than did Roman Catholicism, a factor that contributed to the commercial revolution of the early modern period.

Spread of Protestantism

A second Protestant Reformation occurred in England when Henry VIII of England broke with the Roman Catholic Church over the pope’s refusal to annul his first marriage, which had not produced a male heir. Under Henry’s daughter Elizabeth I, England officially recognized Protestantism. Another Protestant, John Calvin, preached the concept of predestination , which held that God had predetermined those people who would be saved. Calvinism spread not only through much of western and northern Europe but also to North America through the migrations of the Puritans.

Catholic Reformation

The Protestant Reformation produced a movement within the Roman Catholic Church to consider Protestant charges against it. As a result of the Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) , a church assembly, the Council of Trent, abandoned the sale of indulgences, but preserved traditional Roman Catholic beliefs and practices. A new religious order, the Jesuits, or Society of Jesus , was organized to serve as the missionary and educational arm of the Church. The Jesuits engaged widely in missionary work in the Americas and in Asia, taking both Christianity and the knowledge of European culture and technology to those continents.

Results of the Protestant Reformation

In addition to spreading the belief in salvation by faith alone, the Protestant Reformation:

• Increased European questioning of political authority

• Strengthened the authority of monarchs as papal power decreased

• Encouraged education as Protestants wanted their children to be able to read the Bible

• Improved the status of women within marriage as religious writers encouraged love between husband and wife

• Created new Protestant churches

The Scientific Revolution

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw another kind of revolution: one in scientific thought. Among the key debates of science was a dialogue concerning the nature of the universe. Copernicus, a Polish scientist, abandoned the geocentric theory of Ptolemy to prove that the sun was the center of the solar system (the heliocentric theory ). The Italian scientist Galileo used a telescope to confirm the discoveries of Copernicus and to study planetary motion and gravity. As a result of his studies, Galileo was taken to court by the Roman Catholic Church and required to publicly recant his theories. A German scientist, Johannes Kepler, discovered the elliptical pattern of planetary motion, whereas Isaac Newton established the basic principles of motion and described the forces of gravity.

New knowledge also was obtained concerning the human body. Vesalius of Belgium studied human anatomy. The Englishman John Harvey explained the circulatory system.

Revolution in Scientific Thought

The Scientific Revolution supported additional research. René Descartes encouraged the educated to develop a skeptical approach to learning. Francis Bacon advocated empirical research based on observations and carefully obtained data. Western science took on a nature distinct from scientific thought in East Asia. In contrast to Chinese scientific thought, which generally dealt with specific facts that were practical in nature, Western scientific thought formulated general laws of nature that had roots in Islamic and Greek philosophy. Also characteristic of Western scientific thought were principles that could be utilized for the improvement of humankind.

The Enlightenment

The revolution in science led to a revolution in thought regarding the nature of politics, economics, and society. The Enlightenment involved the application of human reason to improve society. Behind the movement was the belief that human beings were basically good and that education and reason could improve their condition even further. Childhood was recognized as a separate stage of growth, and children’s toys and books appeared for the first time. Like the Protestant Reformation, the Enlightenment supported marriages based on love, a concept that raised the status of women in family life.

Beginning and Spread of Enlightenment Thought

The Enlightenment began with the philosophes , or French philosophers, many of whom discussed their ideas at Parisian meetinghouses called salons. As the movement spread throughout Europe, Russia, and Europe’s colonies in the Americas, the Enlightenment continued to support scientific advances. Some Enlightenment thinkers followed a scientific philosophy called Deism , which held that there was a god who created the earth, then left it to operate by natural law .

Enlightenment Political Thought

Political philosophers such as the Englishman John Locke and the Frenchman Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote of a social contract in which governments ruled by the consent of the governed to ensure the preservation of the natural rights of humankind. Criminologists advocated rehabilitation for criminals, whereas Mary Wollstonecraft of England spoke out for political rights for women. The Scottish economist Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), in which he set forth the principles of laissez-faire economics . Smith’s philosophy held that government regulation of the economy should be minimal in order to allow the free operation of the laws of supply and demand. Denis Diderot of France compiled the Encyclopédie, which included the scientific and social scientific knowledge of the Enlightenment.

Rapid Review

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The period from 1450 to 1750 witnessed three major cultural and intellectual revolutions. The Protestant Reformation defied established church traditions and taught salvation by faith alone. The Scientific Revolution explained the nature of the universe and encouraged research. Another movement, the Enlightenment, believed in the basic goodness of humanity and spoke of natural rights that formed the philosophy behind the political revolutions of the eighteenth century.

Review Questions

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1 . Both the Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment

  (A) questioned political authority

  (B) lowered the status of women

  (C) upheld church traditions

  (D) relied on reason over faith

2 . The Protestant Reformation

  (A) strengthened the authority of the papacy

  (B) spread because of advances in Chinese and European technology

  (C) became the basis of Enlightenment thought

  (D) diminished the achievements of the commercial revolution

3 . All of the following describe the Scientific Revolution EXCEPT that

  (A) it emphasized the value of research

  (B) it described the nature of the universe

  (C) some of its beliefs were openly opposed by the Roman Catholic Church

  (D) it was modeled on Chinese philosophy

4 . Enlightenment thought

  (A) resulted in harsher punishments for criminals

  (B) treated children as miniature adults

  (C) resembled Renaissance thought

  (D) was not embraced by the women’s movement

5 . The Protestant and Catholic reformations were alike in their

  (A) reliance on church councils

  (B) views toward papal authority

  (C) abandonment of church traditions

  (D) emphasis on education

6 . The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

  (A) both held that reason could be used to improve humanity

  (B) broke completely with classical traditions

  (C) supported the ideas of the Roman Catholic Church concerning the nature of the universe

  (D) were global movements

7 . Which of the following is NOT a finding of the Scientific Revolution or the Enlightenment?

  (A) Heliocentric theory

  (B) Movable type

  (C) The circulatory system

  (D) The social contract

8 . Which of the following concepts of the period 1450 to 1750 did NOT rely on natural laws?

  (A) Predestination

  (B) Deism

  (C) Laissez-faire philosophy

  (D) The social contract

Answers and Explanations

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1 . A Some Europeans favored the Protestant Reformation because it opposed the political and religious authority of the pope. Enlightenment political thinking questioned the authority of governments not established by the consent of the governed. Both improved the status of women by emphasizing the element of love within marriage. Feminists such as Mary Wollstonecraft spoke out in favor of women’s rights (B). The Enlightenment placed human reason above church traditions, whereas the Protestant Reformation also challenged them (C). The Protestant Reformation relied on faith over reason (D).

2 . B The Chinese invention of movable type and the European printing press facilitated the production of documents that spread Reformation thought. The Protestant Reformation weakened the authority of the papacy with regard to both religious and secular matters (A). Reformation theology was based on faith rather than on natural law (C). Protestantism favored participation in commercial ventures (D).

3 . D Chinese ideas differed from the principles of the Scientific Revolution in not being concerned with the application of science to everyday society. The Scientific Revolution stressed the value of data and research (A) and broke with ancient traditions to describe the nature of the universe (B). The heliocentric theory was initially opposed by the Roman Catholic Church (C).

4 . C The philosophy of both the Renaissance and the Enlightenment was based on reason. Enlightenment thought advocated rehabilitation for criminals (A). It treated childhood as a separate stage in life (B). Mary Wollstonecraft, an Enlightenment thinker, spoke out on behalf of political rights for women (D).

5 . D Both reformations valued education as a tool to spread their beliefs. The Roman Catholic Church depended on church councils to establish official church doctrines, whereas the Protestant Reformation taught independence from church traditions and practices (A). Although the Roman Catholic Church relied on papal authority, the Protestant churches did not (B). Although the Protestants abandoned some church traditions, the Roman Catholic Church reaffirmed them in their councils (C).

6 . A Both believed that science had a practical role in society. Greek thought influenced both movements (B). Both disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church over the nature of the universe (C). Neither movement directly influenced the Eastern world (D).

7 . B Movable type, influenced by Chinese printing, was developed in Europe in the 1450s, before the Scientific Revolution or the Enlightenment. The other choices were new to the Scientific Revolution or the Enlightenment.

8 . A Predestination was the belief of John Calvin that God had chosen which people would receive salvation and which would not. Deism held that the creator god had left the world to operate according to natural laws (B). Laissez-faire economics was based on the natural laws of supply and demand (C). The social contracts of both Locke and Rousseau involved the preservation of natural rights (D).

PERIOD 4 Summary: Global Interactions (c. 1450 to c. 1750)

Timeline

Key Comparisons

1. European versus Asian monarchs

2. Empires in Africa, Asia, and Europe

3. European versus Asian economic systems

4. Reactions of Japan versus China to Western influence

5. Slavery versus serfdom

6. Trade in Mughal India versus Ming China

7. Russian versus Ottoman interaction with the West

8. Gender roles in Ming China versus Western Europe

9. Trans-Atlantic versus Indian Ocean trade

10. Western European versus Asian and Ottoman technology

Change/Continuity Chart

Industrial Revolution and Social Changes

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The period between 1750 and 1900 was one of radical change, especially in the West, Russia, Japan, and China. Political revolutions occurred in the Americas, France, and China. The global population increase caused in part by the Columbian Exchange was followed by a revolution in industry that began in England.

Key Terms

An asterisk ( *) denotes items listed in the glossary.

capital*

domestic system*

economic liberalism*

enclosure movement*

entrepreneurship*

factors of production

gold standard*

Industrial Revolution*

laissez-faire economics*

limited liability corporation*

Meiji Restoration*

Russo-Japanese War*

Second Industrial Revolution*

Sino-Japanese War

stock market*

transnational company

zaibatsu *

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Industrial Revolution

The change in the production of manufactured goods from the home to the factory began in the English textile industry in the mid-eighteenth century. The Industrial Revolution built on innovations in agriculture that had brought improved farming methods such as crop rotation, scientific breeding of livestock, and the application of fertilizers. A result of increased agricultural output was the enclosure movement . Large landholders fenced pastures that previously had been left open for common use, creating a sizable population of landless laborers. England’s growing position in global trade contributed to the pursuit of manufacturing interests. The English government supported industrialization by passing laws and instituting policies that promoted its growth. In addition, England possessed the factors of production:

• Land (including natural resources such as coal and iron ore)

• Labor (including thousands of dispossessed farmers from southeastern England evicted from their lands as a result of the enclosure movement)

• Capital (banking and investment interests capable of funding the costs of factories and machinery)

• Entrepreneurship (groups of individuals with the knowledge of combining land, labor, and capital to establish factory production)

The technological advance that initiated the transition of manufacturing from home to factory was the steam engine, invented by James Watt of Scotland in the 1770s. Accompanying factory production were changes in transportation and communication such as the telegraph, canals, steamships, and railroads, all of which served to speed up the movement of goods and information.

Expansion of Financial Institutions

To promote industrial investments, financiers offered a variety of services, including insurance, stock markets , and limited liability corporations . Many favored the use of the gold standard to promote financial stability. The globalization of industrialization gave rise to transnational companies such as the United Fruit Company and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. These financial innovations owed their origin to the economists Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill. Both Smith’s laissez-faire economics and Mill’s economic liberalism held that government intervention in and regulation of the economy should be minimal.

Social Changes Brought About by Industrialization

The factory system brought a number of changes to family life and society:

• Work was carried out outside the home, a situation that separated family members.

• Factory workers were required to follow schedules and to arrive at work at a specified time.

• Factories required workers to adhere to strict rules.

• Work was done to the noise of machines.

• The pace of work was generally more rapid than at home.

• Women lost manufacturing jobs carried out under the domestic system . They were expected to return to the traditional roles of homemaker and childcare provider.

• Social status began to be determined more by wealth than by family position in society.

• Early industrial cities were generally crowded, unsanitary, and poorly lighted, with no police protection.

After 1850, the nature of the industrial setting changed somewhat:

• Workers in Western societies received higher wages and shorter working hours, allowing for more leisure time activities.

• With the increase in leisure time came popular interest in the theater and in sports.

• Additional employment opportunities arose in secretarial work and sales. Some of these jobs were filled by women, especially those who were unmarried.

• The mass production of clothing made it more affordable, allowing the general population to wear similar fashions.

• Popular consumption of manufactured goods led to advertising campaigns.

Spread of Industrialization

After England industrialized, other Western nations soon followed. By the 1820s, Belgium and France had begun to industrialize, and a few years later the United States and Germany began factory production. About 1850, the Second Industrial Revolution applied the use of electricity and steel to the industrial process. By the end of the nineteenth century, Russia, Egypt, and Japan had become industrialized nations. Common to industrialization in Western nations, Russia, and Japan was the development of railroads, with Russia and the United States constructing transcontinental railways.

Industrialization in Russia

As the Western nations began to industrialize, Russia remained backward in technology. The emancipation of the serfs in 1861 aided Russia in the transition from a predominantly agricultural to a more industrialized society. Government support for industry led to the construction of a trans-Siberian railroad that linked the European portion of Russia with the Pacific world. By the latter years of the nineteenth century, factories had arisen in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Government-sponsored programs at the turn of the century improved the Russian banking system and applied high tariffs to protect industry. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Russia ranked fourth in the world in steel production.

Industrialization in Japan

During the first half of the nineteenth century, Japan continued to be governed by the Tokugawa Shogunate. Technologically backward to the industrialized West, Japan emerged from its relative isolation after the 1854 arrival of an expedition from the United States under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry. In 1856, Japan opened two ports to trade with the United States. Shortly thereafter, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Russia were granted similar concessions.

Some of the Japanese samurai favored an end to Japan’s isolation. In 1868, the Japanese chose a new emperor named Mutsuhito, or “Meiji,” meaning “Enlightened One.” The Meiji Restoration ended feudalism in Japan and centralized its government. The Meiji government sent key samurai to Western Europe and the United States to study Western technology, government, and economics. In the 1870s, the Meiji government abolished the position of samurai , and in the 1880s, created a bicameral parliament based along Western models.

Japanese social and political changes were accompanied by rapid industrialization. Banks were set up, and the Japanese army and navy were modernized. Key to the success of Japanese industry was strong government support. State-sponsored railroads, steamships, and factories were built. Heavy taxes imposed on Japanese citizens supported industry. By the 1890s, many of the textile mills and other factories were sold off to private investors who formed conglomerates called zaibatsu .

In spite of Japan’s rapid industrialization, the islands were not fully equipped for industrialization. Japan lacked significant coal and iron ore deposits essential to carry on an industrial economy. By the beginnings of the twentieth century, Japan remained dependent on the West for raw materials and technology.

In the 1890s, Japan’s need for raw materials for its industries prompted a quest for empire. In 1895, Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War , which was fought over control of Korea. Japan’s influence in Korea also led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 to 1905, in which Japan defeated Russia. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea.

Social Changes in Industrial Japan

The influence of industrialization introduced a number of Western practices to Japan. Public primary education was offered to all children. The Japanese adopted the metric system, clocks, and the Western calendar. Western haircuts became the fashion for Japanese men. In spite of these adaptations to Western ways, however, few Japanese adopted Christianity, and Shinto and Confucianism became even more popular. Family life also maintained its traditions; Japanese women retained their traditional roles of wives and mothers in a patriarchal family.

Industrialization in Egypt

Under the leadership of its ruler Muhammad Ali, Egypt began to industrialize in the early nineteenth century. In order to lessen Egypt’s dependence on the Ottomans, Muhammad Ali built up the Egyptian military. He also brought in European advisers to build up industries. To fund the new industries, Egyptian peasants were required to grow cotton and wheat to export to industrialized nations. When Muhammad Ali levied high tariffs on imported goods, the British objected and forced him to discontinue the duties. Egypt’s new industries were unable to compete with British manufacturers, and became dependent on lower-priced manufactured goods from Great Britain.

Rapid Review

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Beginning in Great Britain, the Industrial Revolution spread throughout Western Europe and the United States, altering society and family life. After abolishing serfdom in 1861, Russia began to industrialize, constructing a trans-Siberian railroad to link European Russia to the Pacific coast. The Perry expedition to Japan in 1854 prompted Japan to open its doors to industrialization. Japan ended feudalism and established a centralized empire that built up an industrial sector by the end of the nineteenth century. Japan, however, remained poor in natural resources, a situation that furthered its quest for an empire to acquire resources to run its industries. In Egypt, attempts at industrialization met with limited success because of the intervention of Great Britain.

Review Questions

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1 . Efforts at industrialization in Russia and Japan were similar in that

  (A) both began in the early nineteenth century

  (B) both followed the termination of long-established institutions

  (C) both countries developed more centralized governments

  (D) both depended on the textile industry

2 . In the early years of industrial development

  (A) women in Japan emerged from traditional roles

  (B) husbands and wives were given more opportunities to work together

  (C) married women had more opportunities for clerical jobs

  (D) British women lost jobs in domestic manufacturing

3 . Common to most early industrial nations was the development of

  (A) steel manufacturing

  (B) railroads

  (C) zaibatsu

  (D) unions

4 . Japan’s greatest challenge to industrialization was

  (A) its geography

  (B) lack of government cooperation

  (C) continued presence of the shogunate

  (D) competition between the government and the zaibatsu

5 . Industrial Revolution in Great Britain

  (A) was facilitated because of the enclosure movement

  (B) followed a similar revolution in the United States

  (C) initiated an interest in global trade

  (D) received little government support

6 . Industrialization in Egypt

  (A) gave new freedoms to lower classes

  (B) decreased Egypt’s dependency on the West

  (C) resulted from disharmony in the Muslim world

  (D) was accomplished without government support

7 . In the early nineteenth century, Russia remained backward compared to Western nations because of

  (A) a history of tsarist opposition to westernization

  (B) its lack of a labor force

  (C) its lack of natural resources

  (D) its continuation of serfdom

8 . After the Perry expedition to Japan

  (A) Japan refused to open ports to Western nations

  (B) the samurai opposed trade relations with the West

  (C) industrialization was accompanied by imitation of Western governments

  (D) traditional Japanese religion lost popularity

Answers and Explanations

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1 . B Prior to industrialization, Russia abolished serfdom and Japan ended feudalism. Both countries began to industrialize in the latter part of the nineteenth century (A). Whereas Japan developed a more centralized government about the time that it industrialized, the Russian government was already centralized (C). Whereas textile mills were a part of early Japanese industrialization, Russia was more dependent on the production of steel (D).

2 . D Many British women had worked in domestic industries prior to the transition to factory production. Women in Japan continued their traditional roles (A). The Industrial Revolution produced less togetherness as married women retained their roles in the home while their husbands worked in factories (B). Married women retained traditional roles in the home (C).

3 . B Railroads were a common feature of industrialized nations, with Russia’s trans-Siberian railroad and the U.S. transcontinental railroad serving as examples. Steel manufacturing was a feature of Russian industry (A). The zaibatsu pertained to Japanese industry (C). Unions arose in the West as industrialization progressed (D).

4 . A Japan’s geography did not provide the country with an abundance of needed resources. Japan’s industrialization enjoyed government support (B). The shogunate was terminated about the time that Japan industrialized (C). The Japanese government cooperated with the zaibatsu (D).

5 . A The enclosure movement provided the needed labor force to facilitate industrialization. The Industrial Revolution in Britain preceded that in the United States (B). An interest in world trade preceded British industrialization (C). British industry received government backing (D).

6 . C Egyptian industrialization resulted from the desire of Muhammad Ali to become more independent from Ottoman influence. Peasant classes were forced to grow crops for export (A). When Great Britain interfered with Egyptian industrialization, Egypt became more dependent on the West (B). Industrialization was the project of Egyptian leader Muhammad Ali (D).

7 . D Serfdom, not abolished until 1861, kept Russia an agricultural nation. Both Peter the Great and Catherine the Great had favored westernization (A). Its large population provided an ample labor force (B), and it possessed the necessary resources for industrialization (C).

8 . C Japan instituted a bicameral parliament based on Western models. Japan opened two ports to Western nations (A). Some samurai favored trade relations with the West (B). Christianity did not find much support among the Japanese, while Shinto gained somewhat in popularity (D).

Demographic and Environmental Developments

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The Industrial Revolution brought a number of changes in the environments of industrialized nations. A population increase in the West, China, and Japan during the eighteenth century provided the labor force needed by the factory system but also added new challenges. Industrial pollution plagued urban areas. Migration between the Eastern and Western hemispheres enriched the cultural makeup of the Americas.

Key Terms

Maori*

pogrom*

quantum physics

romanticism*

theory of natural selection

theory of relativity

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Population Revolution in the West

In the middle of the eighteenth century, the population of Western Europe increased dramatically. Among the causes of this increase were the end of episodes of epidemic disease and the improved diets resulting from increased consumption of potatoes. Infant mortality rates decreased, whereas larger numbers of healthy adults resulted in a higher birth rate. Larger populations provided a ready labor supply for the new factories.

Industrialization also contributed to patterns of migration. Substantial numbers of people, especially young adults, migrated from the country to the city in search of employment in factories, upsetting the makeup of the traditional Western family. Another pattern of migration involved the movement of the middle class away from the central city to emerging suburbs.

After 1850, urbanization continued in the West; in Great Britain and other Western countries the majority of the population resided in cities. Accompanying a drop in death rates was a lowering of birth rates. Families no longer felt as great a need to produce large families to serve as laborers on family farms. Contributing to falling death rates were more hygienic practices used during childbirth following Louis Pasteur’s discovery of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s.

Population Growth in the Non-Western World

Population growth was not restricted to the Western world. In the nineteenth century, the population of Latin America doubled. The cultivation of the sweet potato in China increased population to levels that stressed the country’s economy and resources, demonstrating a need for improvement in agricultural methods and technology in China. Also in the nineteenth century, Japan experienced a population explosion because of improvements in nutrition and medical care. Like China, Japan felt the strain in natural resources caused by its growing population. The increased consumption of the potato in the nineteenth century also produced significant population increases in Russia.

Urban Populations and Environments

Sudden population growth was only one of the problems encountered by industrialized urban areas in the West and in Japan. Water supplies were contaminated by human sewage and industrial waste. The dark skies resulting from coal-produced smoke hovering over industrial cities contributed to frequent cases of rickets, a disease of the bones caused by underexposure to sunlight.

Patterns of Migration and Immigration

Migration in the period between 1750 and 1914 took on various forms. Western Europeans continued to colonize and settle regions of the Americas, India, Africa, the Pacific, and Southeast Asia well into the eighteenth century. Settler colonies not only brought about rivalries between Europeans and native peoples but also, as in the Columbian Exchange of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, exposed indigenous peoples to European diseases. Among the victims of European diseases were the Maoris of New Zealand, whose population was reduced by about one-third, and native Hawaiians, over half of whom fell to diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis. The decimation of the Hawaiian population created a need for imported workers; in the late 1800s, workers from China and Japan arrived in the Hawaiian Islands and transmitted their culture to the islands.

The need for labor in various regions of Latin America in the late nineteenth century produced a flood of immigration from Europe to Brazil and Argentina. Many of the newcomers to Brazil were immigrants from Portugal and Italy who came to work on Brazil’s coffee plantations. Because of the physical strength required to carry out plantation labor, most of these migrants were male, leaving women to remain in their home countries and assume new roles in their society. Some of these Italian immigrants returned to Italy part of the year to work the crops there, but others remained in Latin America permanently, adding a European flair and a new diversity to Brazil and Argentina. In the early years of the twentieth century, Russians, Germans, and Jews also contributed to the immigrant population of Latin America. Many of the Jewish immigrants were refugees from pogroms , or mass persecutions, of Jews in Russia.

Many immigrants became victims of racial and ethnic prejudice in their new environment. For example, after anti-Chinese riots broke out in some communities in the western United States, the U.S. Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which prevented most Chinese immigration.

Changes in the Educational and Artistic Environment

As the inhabitants of Western industrial cities gradually acquired more leisure time, there was a growing interest in scientific knowledge and theories as well as in new methods of literary and artistic expression. In early-nineteenth-century literature and the arts, a new manner of expression called romanticism explained human experiences and nature through the use of emotion rather than reason. In 1859, Charles Darwin proposed his theory of natural selection , which stated that living species had evolved into their current forms by the survival of the fittest species. Darwin’s ideas remained controversial because they conflicted with the biblical account of creation. In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck discovered that light and energy flow in small units that he named “quanta,” establishing the discipline of quantum physics . In 1916, Albert Einstein, also a German physicist, formulated his theory of relativity , which argued that time and space are relative to one another. Social scientists used experimental data to explain human behavior; Sigmund Freud of Vienna explained new theories of the workings of the human mind and developed the technique of psychoanalysis.

Rapid Review

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Improvements in medical practices and sanitation as well as widespread consumption of the potato increased populations in various world regions. The crowded populations of industrial cities presented new problems in housing developments. Although medical knowledge improved throughout the years from 1750 to 1914, pollution in industrial urban areas presented new health issues. Colonization brought new contacts between East and West, including the spread of epidemic disease. At the same time, European immigrants to the Western Hemisphere contributed customs that enriched the cultural landscape of the Americas. Increased leisure time created popular interest in science and the arts.

Review Questions

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1 . In the late nineteenth century, Chinese and Japanese laborers were sought in

  (A) Hawaii

  (B) Argentina

  (C) Mexico

  (D) Western Europe

2 . Among common migration patterns in the nineteenth century was

  (A) migration from Latin America to Mediterranean Europe

  (B) middle-class migration from countryside to city

  (C) the discontinuation of settler colonies

  (D) migration for religious reasons

3 . Disease transmission between 1750 and 1914

  (A) resulted in new employment opportunities for East Asian immigrants

  (B) did not effect Oceania

  (C) produced increased mortality rates during childbirth

  (D) saw thousands of Europeans die from exposure to native diseases of the Americas and East Asia

4 . Population patterns in the nineteenth century

  (A) showed growth restricted to the Western world

  (B) showed limited growth among working classes

  (C) showed decline in East Asia and growth in Western Europe

  (D) were affected by the Columbian Exchange of the previous period

5 . New scientific and artistic expressions in the West in the nineteenth century

  (A) supported traditional beliefs

  (B) relied on reason in literary expression

  (C) created new frontiers in physics

  (D) relied on observation rather than experiments to explain human behavior

Answers and Explanations

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1 . A High mortality rates among Hawaiians when exposed to European diseases caused a need for workers from China and Japan. The other responses were not destinations of major immigrations from China and Japan.

2 . D Notable was the migration of Russian Jews to the West as a result of pogroms directed toward them. The period saw migration from Mediterranean Europe to Latin America (A). Members of the lower classes tended to move from the countryside to the cities (B). Settler colonies continued to be inhabited by Europeans (C).

3 . A Immigrants from Japan and China found employment in Hawaii because of Hawaiian population decline from epidemic disease. The Maoris of New Zealand were decimated by European diseases (B). Improved sanitation methods decreased childbirth mortality (C). Europeans introduced the diseases that killed native populations (D).

4 . D Food crops from the Americas, especially the potato, were responsible for the nutritional improvements that contributed to population growth as late as the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This population growth affected non-Western (C) as well as Western nations (A). Working classes also benefited from increased nutrients and improved health care (B).

5 . C The quantum theory and the theory of relativity were two frontiers in physics formulated during the period. The theory of natural selection is one example of an idea that broke with traditional beliefs (A). Romanticism relied on emotion rather than reason (B). The new science relied on experimental data (D).

World Trade

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The manufactured goods of the industrialized West and the raw materials used to produce them became a primary focus of world trade in the period between 1750 and 1900. In the Atlantic world, trade largely revolved around the plantation system and the economic exploitation of the newly independent nations of Latin America (see Chapter 23 ). Methods of extracting natural resources from subject nations changed as railroads and roads were constructed to transport raw materials from the interior of colonies to port areas for eventual transport to Europe. Instead of small, independent farm plots owned and cultivated by native peoples, large plantations arose to replace them. On these new agricultural units, native peoples of Africa, India, and Southeast Asia produced crops necessary to the industrialized nations of Europe.

Key Terms

extraterritoriality*

guano*

Monroe Doctrine*

Opium War*

Qing dynasty

spheres of influence*

Suez Canal*

Tanzimet reforms*

Treaty of Nanking*

Wahhabi rebellion*

Young Turks*

---

Latin American Trade

The profitable sugar plantations of the Caribbean and Brazil were at the heart of Latin American trade with Europe. Brazil also produced cotton and cacao for European use, and during the late eighteenth century, its seaports were opened to world trade. Trade increased the importation of slaves to the Portuguese colony.

As Latin American independence movements drew to a close in the 1820s, the United States stepped forward to monitor future trade with its southern neighbors. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) announced the intention of the United States to maintain a “hands off” policy with regard to European colonization in the Americas. Great Britain already had trade agreements with the Spanish colonies since the eighteenth century. It now foresaw the newly independent Latin American republics as future trade partners and supported the Monroe Doctrine. A more active trade began with Britain trading manufactured goods to Latin America, especially Brazil, in exchange for raw materials. In the late nineteenth century, the United States, France, and other nations also traded with Latin America.

By the end of the nineteenth century, active trade was carried on in Cuban tobacco and sugar; Brazilian sugar and coffee; Mexican copper, silver, and henequen; Peruvian guano ; Chilean grain and copper; and Argentinian beef, grain, hides, and wool. Beef exports increased dramatically after the invention of the refrigerated railroad car in the late nineteenth century. Also in the late nineteenth century, as European nations established colonies and increased industrial production, demand for Latin American rubber, especially from Brazil, increased.

Large landholders who exported sugar and hides especially benefited from foreign trade, whereas local independent traders often had to compete with cheaper and better quality foreign goods. As a result, Latin America became increasingly dependent on the importation of foreign goods, whereas power and wealth concentrated in the hands of large landholders. Foreign investments provided Latin America with necessary capital but also with industry and transportation largely under foreign control. Global trade with the Americas increased after the Panama Canal opened in 1914.

Trade with the Islamic World

Although trade with Latin America increased markedly in the middle and latter years of the nineteenth century, foreign trade with the Ottoman Empire continued on a path of gradual decline. The empire was increasingly weakened by successful independence revolts of its subject peoples, including the Greeks in 1820 and the Serbs in 1867. In the early nineteenth century, the Wahhabi rebellion attempted to restore Ottoman strength by insisting upon a return to more traditional Islam and strict adherence to shariah law. Contributing to Ottoman weakness was the empire’s disinterest in industrialization, which led minority groups such as Christians and Jews within the Ottoman Empire to carry on their own trade with Western European nations for manufactured goods. The artisans who produced goods using the domestic system had difficulty competing with European imports.

The threat of European competition produced a wave of political and economic reform from 1839 to 1876 that opened the Ottoman Empire more to Western influence. The Tanzimet reforms facilitated trade, but they came too late to make sweeping changes in the Ottoman economy. Further reform efforts by the Young Turks failed to achieve permanent change. The corruption of later Ottoman rulers and decreased agricultural revenue took their toll. In return for foreign loans to bolster its faltering economy, the Ottoman Empire was made economically dependent on European imports and influence. Europeans were granted the privilege of extraterritoriality , which allowed Europeans in Ottoman commercial centers to live according to their own laws rather than those of the Ottomans.

Egyptian commerce also suffered from European competition. Muhammad Ali’s insistence on increasing cotton production diverted farmers from grain production and made Egypt dependent on the export of a single crop. A decline in the price of cotton worldwide could have devastated the Egyptian economy. By 1869, however, Egyptian trade strengthened because a canal opened across the Isthmus of Suez. Connecting the Mediterranean and Red seas, the Suez Canal made Egypt a significant commercial and political power between Europe and its colonies in Africa and Asia.

Qing China and the Opium Trade

In 1644, the weakened Ming dynasty was overtaken by the Manchus, a largely nomadic people who lived north of the Great Wall. The new dynasty, calling itself Qing , lifted Ming restrictions against foreign travel. Chinese merchants took an increasingly active part in overseas trade, and foreign merchants traded with China through the port of Canton. Trade in Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain brought in large quantities of silver, which was the basis of the Chinese economy. By the nineteenth century, international trade based in southern China was especially profitable.

One of China’s chief trading partners, Great Britain, became increasingly concerned over having to pay large amounts of silver for Chinese luxury goods. British merchants solved the trade imbalance by trading Indian opium to China. Indian opium, which was of a higher quality than Chinese-grown opium, took such a hold on Chinese society that soon the Chinese were forced to pay for the product with large quantities of their silver. In addition to this trade reversal, millions of Chinese became addicted to opium, a situation that affected work and family responsibilities. When the Qing emperor took measures to block the opium trade, war broke out in 1839 between China and Great Britain. British victory in the Opium War and another conflict in the 1850s resulted in the opening of China to European trade. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) that ended the Opium War made Hong Kong a British colony and opened up five ports to foreign commerce instead of only the port of Canton. Opium continued to flow into China. By 1900, more than ninety ports were open to foreign trade. Foreign spheres of influence were drawn up in China; within these territories, the controlling nation enjoyed special trade privileges as well as the right of extraterritoriality.

Russia and World Trade

Russia continued to occupy a backward position in trade and technology. The Russians exported some grain to western Europe in exchange for Western machinery. By 1861, the desire to compete with Western nations in world trade prompted Russia to emancipate its serfs. Still, Russia lagged behind in export crops as the emancipation of the serfs left a labor force that used outdated agricultural methods.

Japanese Entrance into World Trade

The second Perry expedition to Japan in 1854 opened two ports to trade with the United States. Later, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and Russia initiated trade relations with Japan. As Japan industrialized, it depended on imports of Western equipment and raw materials, especially coal.

End of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The combination of Enlightenment thought, religious conviction, and a slave revolt in Haiti led to the end of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The British ended their participation in the slave trade in 1807, then worked to get the cooperation of other slave importers to the Americas to end their part in the slave trade. While Britain seized hundreds of slave ships, Cuba and Brazil, with the cooperation of African rulers, continued to import huge numbers of slaves. The trans-Atlantic slave trade did not end until 1867.

Rapid Review

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Although the trade in human beings across the Atlantic was coming to an end, other avenues of trade appeared worldwide. Latin America, Russia, the Islamic world, and Japan developed an increased dependency on Western technology. China saw its favorable balance of trade reversed as its silver supply was diminished to purchase Indian opium from Great Britain. By the beginning of the twentieth century, European products dominated global trade routes.

Review Questions

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1 . As a result of the Opium War

  (A) the Qing dynasty overtook the Ming

  (B) Great Britain acquired Hong Kong

  (C) the Chinese silver supply was restored

  (D) the importation of opium to China increased

2 . The end of the trans-Atlantic slave trade

  (A) was resisted by Great Britain

  (B) received widespread support of African kings

  (C) began with Brazil

  (D) occurred about the same time as the emancipation of Russian serfs

3 . The country least dependent on Western technology in the early nineteenth century was

  (A) the Ottoman Empire

  (B) Japan

  (C) Russia

  (D) China

4 . As a result of Latin America’s trade relationship with the United States and Great Britain,

  (A) Latin America became dependent on U.S. and European manufactured goods

  (B) Latin America began to industrialize

  (C) local independent trade flourished in Latin America

  (D) land was redistributed

5 . The Ottoman Empire

  (A) refused to accept foreign loans

  (B) resisted economic reforms

  (C) supported policies that benefited local artisans

  (D) saw trade between non-Muslims and European merchants

6 . Egyptian trade

  (A) was dependent on the exportation of a single crop

  (B) did not suffer from competition with Europe

  (C) improved as a result of Muhammad Ali’s policies

  (D) weakened after the opening of the Suez Canal

7 . Latin American trade

  (A) decreased after the 1820s

  (B) caused Great Britain to support the Monroe Doctrine

  (C) depended on the increased slave trade of the late nineteenth century

  (D) relied on exports of manufactured goods

8 . World trade in the period 1750 to 1900

  (A) brought greater prosperity to China than to the West

  (B) decreased the economic power of the West

  (C) strengthened Latin America’s trade position

  (D) benefited Western colonial powers

Answers and Explanations

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1 . B The Treaty of Nanking (1842) made Hong Kong a British colony. The Qing overtook the Ming in 1644, while the Opium War occurred between 1839 and 1842 (A). China’s silver supply was drained to purchase opium (C) and was not immediately restored since the opium trade continued after the war (D).

2 . D Both ended in the 1860s. Great Britain initiated the end of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and sought the cooperation of other slave importers to the Americas to end their part in the slave trade (A). Brazil continued to support the slave trade (C) with the approval of many African kings (B).

3 . D China continued to resist the intrusion of Western technology, whereas the Ottoman Empire (A) became increasingly dependent on it. After the Meiji restoration, Japan depended on Western technology, sending students to the West to learn of its use (B). Russia purchased machinery from the West (C).

4 . A The United States and Europe encouraged Latin America to provide them with raw materials rather than build factories (B), a situation that kept Latin America dependent on U.S. and European manufactured goods. Local traders were forced to compete with less expensive imports (C). Land remained in the hands of a few large landholders (D), who benefited the most from the wealth brought in by trade.

5 . D Most European trade carried on within the Ottoman Empire was on the part of Jewish and Christian merchants. The Ottoman Empire accepted some loans from the West (A) in spite of enacting some economic reforms within the empire (B). Local artisans suffered because of the influx of better and less expensive European goods (C).

6 . A Egyptian trade depended on the exportation of cotton. It suffered because of the influx of European goods (B). Muhammad Ali’s insistence on a single cash crop hindered Egyptian trade (C). Trade improved after the opening of the Suez Canal (D).

7 . B Great Britain supported the Monroe Doctrine to improve its relations with Latin America so that it could actively trade with the Latin American nations. Latin American trade increased after the independence movements of the 1820s (A). The slave trade ended in the late nineteenth century (C). Latin American nations imported manufactured goods (D).

8 . D Much of world trade in this period benefited Western colonial powers, who imposed their manufactured goods on the developing world, increasing the economic power of the West (B). China suffered an outflow of silver because of the opium trade (A). Latin America became dependent on U.S. and European manufactured goods (C).

Political Revolutions

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: In the period between 1750 and 1900, the Industrial Revolution was joined by political revolutions. Enlightenment philosophies that society could improve through education and reason led to revolution in the British North American colonies, France, and Haiti in the latter part of the eighteenth century and early nineteenth century. Additional Latin American independence movements flourished in the early nineteenth century. In China, the Qing dynasty faced local revolts as it gradually declined.

Key Terms

Bill of Rights

bourgeoisie*

Boxer Rebellion*

Code Napoleon*

communism*

Congress of Vienna

conscription*

conservatism*

Declaration of Independence

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen*

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen*

estates*

Estates-General*

feminism*

Gran Colombia*

Jacobins*

Jamaica Letter

liberalism*

maroon societies*

natural rights*

proletariat*

queu

radicalism*

Reign of Terror*

Revolutions of 1848*

self-strengthening movement*

separation of powers*

Seven Years’ War*

social contract*

socialism*

system of checks and balances*

Taiping Rebellion*

universal male suffrage*

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American Revolution

The revolt for independence in the British North American colonies was the child of Enlightenment philosophers, most notably the Englishman John Locke. Locke spoke of a social contract in which the people relinquished some of their rights to the government in order to establish order. Governments had the responsibility of safeguarding the “unalienable” rights of “life, liberty, and property.” If a government did not preserve these rights, the people had the right to overthrow it and establish a new government.

Britain’s North American colonies had gradually developed their own identities since their founding in the early seventeenth century. The colonists particularly resented British policies that levied taxes on them without allowing them their own representative in Parliament. Higher taxes were imposed in 1763 after the end of the French and Indian War (the American phase of the Seven Years’ War ) as a result of British efforts to receive colonial reimbursement for part of the expense of the war that the British had fought on the colonists’ behalf. The aftermath of war also brought British restrictions against colonial migration into territories west of the Appalachians once held by the French, territories the British considered unsafe for settlement because of potential conflicts with Native Americans in the area.

The American Revolution began in 1775 as a result of efforts from colonial leaders well versed in Enlightenment thought. In 1776, the colonists set up a government that issued the Declaration of Independence , a document modeled after the political philosophies of John Locke. Its author, Thomas Jefferson, altered the natural rights identified by John Locke to include “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” With the aid of the French, the British colonists were victorious in 1781. In 1787, the new United States of America wrote a constitution insuring the separation of powers and the system of checks and balances , both ideas of the Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu. A Bill of Rights added a statement of individual liberties in keeping with Enlightenment principles. Voting rights were increased to embrace more white male voters; by the 1820s, property rights for voting had been abolished in the new states. Neither the Declaration of Independence nor the United States Constitution addressed the issue of slavery.

French Revolution

Enlightenment thinking also contributed to a revolution in France. In the late eighteenth century, French society was divided into three classes, or estates :

• First Estate––the clergy, comprising a little more than 1 percent of the population, and paying no taxes.

• Second Estate––the nobility, comprising slightly more than 2 percent of the population, and paying only a few taxes.

• Third Estate––the remainder of the population, made up of merchants, artisans, and peasants. The peasants were burdened with heavy taxes and labor requirements that were carryovers from feudal days. The middle class, or bourgeoisie , were the merchants, artisans, and professionals who became the driving force of the revolution.

Representatives of the three estates met in the Estates-General , the French legislative assembly. In 1789, however, the French monarchs had not called the Estates-General into session for 175 years. Revolution broke out because of:

• Bourgeoisie desire for a wider political role

• Bourgeoisie wish for restraints on the power of the clergy, monarchy, and aristocracy

• Population growth

• Poor harvests in 1787 and 1788

When King Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of the Estates-General in 1789 in order to raise taxes, the bourgeoisie insisted on changing the voting rules in the Estates-General from one vote per estate to one vote per representative. The king was forced to agree to the new voting arrangement as rioting broke out in Paris. On June 14, 1789, the Bastille, a Parisian political prison, was stormed by a Paris mob. The incident liberated only a handful of prisoners but became the rallying point of the French Revolution.

The new bourgeoisie-dominated National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen , a document whose content bore a resemblance to clauses in the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. The French declaration identified natural rights as “liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.” A new constitution guaranteed freedoms of the press and of religion and increased voting rights. Olympe de Gouges countered the French declaration of rights with her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen .

Reign of Terror

In 1792, the revolution entered a more radical phase known as the Reign of Terror as the monarchy was abolished, with Louis XVI executed on the guillotine. Under the leadership of a radical club known as the Jacobins , thousands were executed during the Reign of Terror. A new constitution provided universal male suffrage and universal military conscription .

The revolutionaries had to repel foreign armies of Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain that attempted to preserve the French monarchy. Eventually, the European armies were driven from France, and revolutionaries added new territory in the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. A wave of nationalism spread throughout France.

Final Stage

The republican gains of the French Revolution came to an end in 1799 with the rise to power of army general Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon limited the power of the legislative assembly and returned authoritarian rule to France. Napoleon also:

• Censored speech and the press

• Codified laws in Code Napoleon

• Granted religious freedom

• Established universities

• Denied women basic rights

Napoleon declared himself the emperor of a new French empire in 1804. The major powers of Europe fought a number of wars against Napoleon’s armies. An 1812 French invasion of Russia led to a decisive defeat for Napoleon, largely as a result of the harsh Russian winter. The European alliance defeated Napoleon in 1814 and again, decisively, in 1815. Although it was a setback for the revolutionary principles in France, Napoleon’s empire spread the ideals of the revolution outside France and created a spirit of nationalism throughout Europe.

Aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars

After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna to restore legitimate monarchs to the thrones of Europe and to create a balance of power. The purpose of the balance of power was to prevent France or any other European nation from dominating the continent again. This spirit of conservatism kept Europe largely at peace until the end of the nineteenth century. Other political movements gained strength: liberalism sought protection for the rights of propertied classes, whereas radicalism wanted broader suffrage and social reforms on behalf of the lower classes. In 1848, a series of revolutions again swept through Europe, bringing the end of monarchy in France. The liberal Revolutions of 1848 largely failed, however, to bring permanent reform to Europe. Nationalist stirrings in Italy and Germany united the various political units in both regions. The unification of Italy was completed in 1870, while German unification occurred a year later in 1871.

Haitian Revolution

The revolutions in the British North American colonies and in France inspired a revolt in the French Caribbean island colony of Saint-Dominique, or Haiti. The Haitian Revolution was the first incident in world history in which black slaves successfully rebelled against their enslavers. Haiti’s colonial economy was based on the production of sugar. Haitian society was divided among slave workers on the sugar plantations, free people of color, and French colonists. During the French Revolution, tensions increased between white inhabitants and free people of color. In 1791, Haitian slaves took advantage of this division to rebel. Under the leadership of a free black named Toussaint L’Overture, the rebellion succeeded, and in 1804 the island declared its independence as the republic of Haiti.

Other Latin American Revolts and Independence Movements

Enlightenment ideas and a succession crisis in Spain created an opportune moment for the realization of independence in Spain’s colonies. The placement of Napoleon’s brother on the throne of Spain instead of the Spanish king caused the American colonists to question the identity of Spain’s ruler. Consequently, independence revolutions broke out in the Americas.

Mexican Independence

In Mexico, the Creole Father Miguel de Hidalgo called on mestizos and Indians to assist him in a rebellion against Spain in 1810. The Creoles, fearing the social reforms that might materialize from mestizo and Indian involvement, initially abandoned the independence movement. After Hidalgo was executed, the Creoles rejoined the cause under Augustín de Iturbide, a Creole officer. In 1821, Mexico declared its independence from Spain. In 1824, Mexico became a republic. The Central American states, which had been a part of Mexico, divided into separate independent nations in 1838.

South American Phase

In the northern part of South America, the Creole Simón Bolívar centered his movement for independence against Spain in Caracas. His Jamaica Letter (1815) expressed his hope that freedom from Spanish rule would ultimately ensure prosperity for Latin America. By 1822, he had liberated Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, uniting these regions into the nation he called Gran Colombia . Regional differences led to the eventual breakup of the new nation.

In the southern portion of South America, José de San Martín emerged as the independence leader from Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina). Río de la Plata declared its independence in 1816. San Martín then crossed into Chile to assist in its liberation. By 1823, all of Spanish America had declared its independence and established republics in all the new nations except Mexico. Independence, however, did not bring prosperity to Latin America, as Bolívar had hoped.

Independence in Brazil

The Portuguese colony of Brazil followed a pattern for independence different from that of the other Latin American countries. In 1807, when the French invaded Portugal, the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil. The colony of Brazil acquired a status equal to that of Portugal. When Napoleon was defeated, the Portuguese king was recalled and left his son Dom Pedro regent in Brazil.

In 1822, Dom Pedro declared Brazil independent after realizing that Brazil was about to lose its representative in the Portuguese parliament. Unlike the other Latin American nations, Brazil did not have to endure a prolonged independence movement. Brazil became a monarchy, and the institution of slavery was left untouched in the newly independent country.

Maroon Societies

Some slaves in Latin America also resisted their colonial government, especially in Brazil and the Caribbean. Runaway slaves who had fled the plantations established their own communities. In the Caribbean, these maroon societies were often located in remote areas in the mountains of Jamaica and Hispaniola and in the islands of the Guianas. Initially intended to provide havens for future escaped slaves, some of the maroon societies eventually were granted independence from colonial rulers.

Decline of Qing China

The Manchus who entered China as the Qing dynasty in 1644 had been exposed to Chinese culture as a result of years spent living along the northern Chinese border. The Qing continued Chinese traditions such as the civil service examination and patriarchal family structure. Female infanticide increased. Women were confined to traditional household duties, while women from peasant families also worked in the fields or in village marketplaces. The Manchus required Chinese men to distinguish themselves from them by wearing a queu , or braided ponytail.

Although the Qing attempted to control the consolidation of large tracts of land, they had little success. The gap between rural peasants and rural gentry increased. Some men of the gentry began to let their fingernails grow extremely long to indicate that they did not have to do any physical labor.

By the end of the eighteenth century, the Qing dynasty was in decline. The civil service examination had often given way to obtaining governmental posts through bribery. Dams, dikes, and irrigation systems were in disrepair. Highway bandits were a problem in some areas of China. The importation of opium (see Chapter 22 ) caused conflicts with Great Britain.

The increased influence of foreign powers on Chinese society and China’s defeat in the Opium War produced widespread rebellion in south China in the 1850s and early 1860s. This rebellion resulted from the inability of the Qing to repel foreign influence in China. The Taiping Rebellion advocated programs of social reform, more privileges for women, and land redistribution. When the scholar-gentry realized that the rebellion was reaching to the heart of Chinese tradition, it rallied and ended the rebellion.

Later Qing officials attempted to spare the Chinese economy by carrying out a self-strengthening movement that encouraged Western investments in factories and railroads and modernized the Chinese army. Reform movements were crushed, however, under the rule of the dowager empress Cixi. The Boxer Rebellion (1898 to 1901) was a revolt against foreigners that was backed by Qing rulers. The rebellion, which culminated in the execution of foreigners in China, was put down by a coalition force from Europe, the United States, and Japan.

Sociopolitical Movements: Feminism, Marxism, and Socialism

Feminism

In the eighteenth century, feminist movements began to seek political, social, and economic gains for women. Among the goals of these movements were access to higher education and the professions and the right to vote. By 1914, Scandinavian countries and some states in the United States had granted women the right to vote. Within a few years, women’s suffrage had extended to all states in the United States and to Great Britain and Germany.

Marxism

The sociopolitical theories of the German Karl Marx became significant in Russian history. Marx taught that all history was the result of a class struggle between the bourgeoisie, or middle class, and the proletariat , or working class. According to Marx, the proletariat would eventually revolt and establish a “dictatorship of the proletariat” that would insure social and political freedom. When this occurred, there would no longer be a need for the state, which would wither away. The result would be pure communism , or a classless society.

Less extreme forms of socialism emerged in European nations as Socialist parties arose in Germany, France, and Austria. Many Europeans were fearful of the revolutionary nature of some Socialist movements. Socialism in Germany, France, and Austria brought changes such as the recognition of labor unions and disability and old-age insurance.

Rapid Review

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The spirit of the Enlightenment produced revolutions in the British North American colonies, France, and Latin America. Reaction against foreign intervention and the weakness of the Qing dynasty culminated in local revolts in China that weakened centuries-old dynastic rule in that country. Accompanying political revolution was an increasingly vocal movement to grant political rights to women in the Western world. Socialism attempted to create working conditions and societies that would improve the condition of humanity, whereas the Marxist brand of socialism defined a class struggle whose ultimate purpose was the abolition of government.

Review Questions

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1 . The American and the French revolutions were alike in all the following ways EXCEPT

  (A) they both brought increased political power for women

  (B) they were prompted by issues of taxation

  (C) they both involved representation in their respective legislatures

  (D) they produced documents that defined similar natural rights

2 . The Haitian Revolution was the only revolution of the period 1750 to 1900 that was initiated and fought by

  (A) Creoles

  (B) mestizos

  (C) slaves

  (D) foreign mercenaries

3 . The Brazilian independence movement

  (A) resulted in the abolition of slavery

  (B) produced a republic for Brazil

  (C) involved a prolonged struggle with Portugal

  (D) was the result of the Napoleonic Wars

4 . The declining years of the Qing dynasty saw

  (A) the influence of foreign nations

  (B) invasion by nomadic people north of the Great Wall

  (C) the long-term acceptance of the self-strengthening movement

  (D) the end of the opium trade

5 . Marxism

  (A) became the model for socialism in Western European nations

  (B) anticipated revolution in agrarian societies

  (C) advocated centralization of the state

  (D) saw history as a series of class struggles

6 . Political, economic, and social change from 1750 to 1900

  (A) saw sweeping changes in political rights for women

  (B) was generally led by members of the lower classes

  (C) included reaction against foreign influence in China and Mexico

  (D) brought increased prosperity to Latin America

Answers and Explanations

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1 . A Although the French Revolution increased women’s political rights somewhat until the rule of Napoleon, no political rights were gained by women as a result of the American Revolution. The French Revolution was a reaction of the Third Estate against taxation, while the American Revolution was a protest against taxation without representation in the British Parliament (B). The French revolt also involved the degree of representation of the Third Estate in the Estates-General (C). The Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen spoke of similar natural rights (D).

2 . C The Haitian Revolution was initiated by black slaves. The other responses are incorrect.

3 . D Brazil saw an opportunity to raise its status to the level of Portugal as a result of the French occupation of the Portuguese throne, a situation that ultimately led to its independence. It did not abolish slavery (A) and produced a monarchy for Brazil (B). It did not involve a prolonged struggle for independence (C), thereby following a different pattern from that of other Latin American independence movements.

4 . A The Opium War was a case of foreign involvement in China. The Qing were the last nomadic invaders of China during the seventeenth century (B). The self-strengthening movement produced only temporary changes (C). The opium trade continued after the Opium War (D).

5 . D Marx saw history as a series of struggles between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Socialism in Europe outside Russia took on a milder form (A). Marx anticipated revolution in industrialized countries (B) and advocated overthrow, rather than centralization, of the state (C).

6 . C Both the Mexican and Chinese revolts were in part reactions against foreign involvement. Women did not see significant changes in their political rights (A). Most revolutions were led by the middle classes (B). Independence did not bring increased prosperity to Latin America (D).

Western Imperialism

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The strengthening of European nation-states and the technological changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution gradually began to erode the European balance of power achieved by the Congress of Vienna. As European nation-states competed for power, they turned to colonies to supply them with raw materials and with markets for their manufactured goods. The rivalries among European nations were carried out in the territories of non-Western nations. The United States also realized its imperialist ambitions in Latin America and the Pacific.

Key Terms

Berlin Conference*

Boer War*

Boers*

economic imperialism*

Great Trek

imperialism*

Indian National Congress*

Manifest Destiny

Raj

Sepoy Rebellion*

sepoys*

Social Darwinism*

Spanish-American War*

---

Background of Imperialism

Imperialism , or the quest for empire, was in part a result of the Industrial Revolution. The mechanization of industry and resulting improvements in transportation brought new demands for raw materials, such as palm oil as a machine lubricant and rubber for tires. The industrial age also:

• Produced military weaponry such as the machine gun and the repeating rifle, which gave Western nations a military advantage over developing nations.

• Saw the application of steam to ships. Steamships could travel previously unnavigable rivers, allowing Europeans to reach the interior regions of continents.

• Brought the application of science to the study of health, resulting in preventative measures against the threat of malaria, a common tropical disease to which most Europeans were not immune.

In addition to the impact of industrialization, the concept of Social Darwinism contributed to the race for colonies. Social Darwinism was the application of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to society to justify the conquest by European nations of non-Western societies.

Role of Nationalism

Nationalism, or intense pride in one’s national culture, also contributed to the new imperialism of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Nationalism served as both a positive and negative force. In 1870, a common language and culture resulted in the unification of the Italian city-states into one nation. The following year, the German principalities also joined to form a single nation-state. In the mid-nineteenth century, the United States followed a policy of Manifest Destiny that led to its expansion from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Within the Austrian Empire, by contrast, were a number of nations with different languages, religions, and institutions. Among them were Poles, Croatians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Hungarians. The Russian Empire also was ethnically diverse, including not only Slavs but also Turks, Poles, Finns, Estonians, and Jews, as well as other ethnic groups. Its diversity led Russia to try to impose the Russian language on all its subject peoples.

Scramble for Colonies

The main regions of European colonization were India and Africa. British influence in India began as commercial activity during the declining years of the Mughal Empire. The breakup of Mughal rule resulted in minor disputes among local princes. The British took advantage of this situation to help settle disputes, thereby gradually gaining greater influence in India. The Seven Years’ War (1756 to 1763), which also was fought in Europe and North America, was the first global war. It brought the British and French into conflict in India. British victories over the French in India gave them control of the country. Many of the Indian soldiers, or sepoys , were attracted to the higher-paying British army. India gradually emerged as Britain’s key source of raw materials and main colonial market for Britain’s manufactured goods.

British Colonial Society in India

The British who went to India created a stratified society with Europeans occupying the highest positions. English became the language of instruction in Indian schools. The British Raj (the Sanskrit name for the British government in India) set up telegraph lines to facilitate communications with Great Britain, and railways to carry troops and raw materials. For the most part, the British did not train the Indians in the use of the new technology that they brought to India. With the cooperation of the Western-educated Indian leader Ram Mohun Roy, the British outlawed sati .

British rule over India tightened after the 1857 Sepoy Rebellion . The cause of this revolt of Indian soldiers in the British army was the issue of new rifles that required the soldiers to use their teeth to tear open the cartridges. These ammunition cartridges were lubricated with animal fat. Muslims, who did not eat pork, were offended by grease that came from animal fat, while Hindus objected to grease from the fat of cattle. Even though the procedure for opening the cartridges was changed, the sepoys rebelled against British authority. The revolt was put down in 1858, but not before several hundred British men, women, and children were massacred.

Schools and universities established by British and American missionaries created an educated class of Indians with a strong nationalist sentiment. In 1885, they founded the Indian National Congress , which promoted a greater role for Indians in their country’s government. The new organization also sought harmony among Indians of diverse religious and social groups.

Imperialism in South Africa

The first European colonial presence in present-day South Africa was the Dutch way station established at Cape Colony in 1652. Eventually, the Dutch, or Boers , moved into the interior of the continent. There they enslaved the inhabitants, the Khoikhoi. Interracial mixing produced the South Africans known as “colored” today.

During the wars of the French Revolution, the British captured Cape Town and annexed it in 1815. A conflict between the Boers, who were slaveholders, and the British over the end of slavery caused many Boers to leave Cape Colony. Their migration, called the Great Trek (1834), took the Boers into the interior of South Africa. There they clashed with the Bantu peoples, especially the powerful Zulu. Under the leadership of their leader, Shaka, the Zulu nation fought back against Dutch, then British, rule, only to be defeated by the more advanced British technology.

In the 1850s, the Boers established two republics in the interior of South Africa: the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. When diamonds were discovered in the Orange Free State in 1867, the Imperialist businessman Cecil Rhodes and other British moved into the Boer republics. In spite of war between the Boers and the British from 1880 to 1881 that ended in Boer victory, the British continued to pour into South Africa. Migration was especially intense after gold was discovered in the Transvaal in 1885. Continued tension between the British and the Boers culminated in the Boer War of 1899 to 1902. After this conflict, the Boers began a period of dominance over native South Africans. In 1902, the individual Boer republics maintained their self-governing status as they were united into the Union of South Africa, controlled by Great Britain.

Partition of Africa

Intense rivalries among European nations played out on the African continent. As the need for raw materials and colonial markets arose, Africa was divided among European colonial powers. The Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885 partitioned Africa into colonies dominated by Great Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, Belgium, and Italy. Only Liberia and Ethiopia were not colonized by Europeans. Absent from the Berlin Conference were representatives from any African nation.

The divisions of the Berlin Conference were carried out without regard for ethnic and cultural groups. Boundaries dividing the territorial possessions of one European power from another often cut through ethnic and cultural groups, placing members of a single group in different colonies dominated by different European powers. Traditional African life was disrupted as Europeans imposed on the continent their concept of the nation-state as the unit of government. These colonial divisions would affect African life to the present.

As in India, European imperialist powers in Africa contributed railways, roads, and other public works to the African landscape. Hospitals were set up and sanitation improved. Most of the improvements were intended initially for the welfare of the European colonists. As in India, Europeans in Africa failed to train natives to use the new technology they brought to the continent.

European businesses set up plantations and required local African natives to work long hours at extremely low wages to produce export crops for European benefit. Work on European plantations prevented Africans from tilling their home and village plots, a situation that led to decreased food supplies and malnutrition for their families.

Imperialism in Southeast Asia

Prior to the new imperialism of the nineteenth century, most of Southeast Asia consisted of independent kingdoms. The Malay States (present-day Malaysia) and Burma (presently Myanmar) came under British rule. Indochina was colonized by the French and the East Indies (now Indonesia) by the Netherlands. Siam (present-day Thailand) was the only Southeast Asian country that did not fall to imperialist ambitions. When native populations provided an insufficient labor supply, Europeans brought in immigrants from India and China.

Economic Imperialism

Another pattern of imperialist control was seen primarily in Hawaii and Latin America: economic imperialism . Economic imperialism involved the exertion of economic influence rather than political control over the region. In Hawaii, American companies exported Hawaiian-produced goods such as sugar and pineapple. Beginning in the early nineteenth century, missionaries from New England brought Christianity and education to the Hawaiians. Europeans and Americans also brought Western diseases to the islands, killing over half the population. Chinese and Japanese workers were brought in to work on Hawaiian plantations. American planters in Hawaii urged the United States to annex the islands. In 1898, the Hawaiian ruler was overthrown, and Hawaii was annexed to the United States.

The increase in Latin American trade (see Chapter 22 ) attracted North American and European investors. Businesses based in the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany invested in Latin American banks, utilities, mines, and railroads. After World War I, U.S. business interests dominated in the region. The nations and islands of Latin America exported food products and raw materials and imported manufactured goods. Western perpetuation of this Latin American trade pattern kept Latin America dependent on the industrialized West.

In Cuba, U.S. economic imperialism turned to territorial acquisition. U.S. businesses had long invested in Cuban sugar and tobacco plantations. When the Cubans rebelled against Spanish rule in 1895, U.S. businessmen became concerned about their Cuban investments. When the U.S. battleship Maine exploded in Havana harbor, the United States went to war against Spain. U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War (1898) resulted in Spanish cession of Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States and the U.S. purchase of the Philippines. Cuba became an independent republic subject to control by the United States. The United States was now a world power.

U.S. Interests in Central America and the Caribbean

The nations of Central America and the Caribbean, both dependent on foreign loans, often were threatened by foreign intervention when they could not repay their loans. The United States intervened in Cuba three times during the early twentieth century. During the same period, U.S. troops occupied the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Haiti. U.S. support for Panamanian independence led to the construction and opening of the Panama Canal in 1914.

Rapid Review

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European nations colonized India and Africa, providing benefits such as improved medical care and more advanced infrastructures including better roads and railways. Most improvements were intended more for the benefit of imperialist nations than for native peoples. African village organization was disrupted as European nations divided the continent without regard to ethnic patterns, a practice that proved devastating to Africa’s future. Southeast Asia, except for Siam, came under the control of a number of European powers. Economic imperialism supported the interests of U.S. and European businesses and created continued dependence of nonindustrialized nations on the industrialized world.

Review Questions

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1 . Imperialism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was a result of all the following EXCEPT

  (A) militarism

  (B) industrialization

  (C) Social Darwinism

  (D) socialism

2 . Economic imperialism

  (A) did not lead to direct political control over new territories

  (B) led to colonial dependence upon industrialized nations

  (C) was the most common imperialist model in Africa

  (D) led to industrialization of Latin America

3 . Which of the following pairs of nations and their imperialist interests is NOT correct?

  (A) United States–Cuba

  (B) Great Britain–India

  (C) Japan–Hawaii

  (D) Germany–Africa

4 . The new imperialism of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

  (A) brought technology created for the benefit of subject peoples

  (B) created an egalitarian society in India

  (C) resulted in some effects similar to those of the Columbian Exchange

  (D) strengthened African village traditions

5 . South Africa

  (A) was subjected more to economic imperialism than political control

  (B) saw British enslavement of native peoples

  (C) became an egalitarian society under Dutch rule

  (D) saw the beginnings of racial divisions during colonial rule

6 . Nationalism

  (A) brought tolerance for diversity within the Russian Empire

  (B) eased tensions within the Austrian Empire

  (C) delayed the unification of both Italy and Germany

  (D) served as both a unifying and a divisive force

7 . European imperialism was facilitated by all the following EXCEPT

  (A) medical advances

  (B) the abolition movement

  (C) the invention of the steam engine

  (D) improved European weaponry

8 . Colonialism in India

  (A) was facilitated by the breakup of the Mughal Empire

  (B) brought an end to tensions between Muslims and Hindus

  (C) brought greater self-rule to the subcontinent after the Sepoy Rebellion

  (D) decreased nationalist feelings among Indians

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D Socialism was a political movement that had no bearing on imperialism. Militarism (A) connected to imperialism by promoting the glories of one’s nation. Industrialization created a need for raw materials and markets that was supplied by colonies (B), whereas Social Darwinism provided the rationalization for industrialized countries to dominate the natives of developing regions (C).

2 . B Economic imperialism led to dependence on the imperialist country to provide manufactured goods. Sometimes, as in the case of the United States and Hawaii, economic imperialism led to direct political control (A). Direct political control was the common imperialist model in Africa (C). It led to Latin America’s continuation as a supplier of raw materials rather than an industrialized region (D).

3 . C The United States, not Japan, had imperialist interests in Hawaii. The other pairs are correct.

4 . C Hawaii is an example of native death from exposure to diseases brought by foreigners, as in the case of the diseases brought to the Americas through the Columbian Exchange. The new imperialism brought technology intended for the benefit of the imperialist nations (A). It created a stratified society in India (B). African village traditions were weakened by imperialism (D).

5 . D Social divisions based on race and skin color began in South Africa under Dutch rule. South Africa was subjected more to political control by the Dutch and British (A). The Dutch, not the British, enslaved native Africans (B). The Dutch stratified society according to the degree of African descent (C).

6 . D Nationalism served to unite Italy and Germany (C), but divided the Austrian (B) and Russian empires (A).

7 . B The abolition movement created conflict between the Boers and British in South Africa. Medical advances brought effective treatments for malaria, which aided imperialism (A). The invention of the steam engine allowed Europeans to navigate rivers to the interior of continents (C). Improved weaponry gave them power over developing societies (D).

8 . A The breakup of the Mughal Empire facilitated the entrance of Britain into India. Tensions between Muslims and Hindus were heightened by the British, leading to the Sepoy Rebellion (B). After the rebellion, British rule tightened (C), increasing nationalist sentiment among the Indians (D).

PERIOD 5 Summary: Industrialization and Global Integration (c. 1750 to c. 1900)

Timeline

Key Comparisons

1. Industrial Revolution in Europe, Russia, and Japan

2. Revolutions: American, French, and Haitian

3. Responses to Western influence in China, Japan, India, and the Ottoman Empire

4. Nationalism in Italy and Germany

5. Nationalism in the Austrian Empire and Russia

6. Imperialism in Africa and India

7. Forms of imperialism in Africa and Latin America

8. Roles of European women in upper and middle classes versus women in lower classes

9. Trade in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins

10. Trade in Western Europe and the Ottoman Empire

Change/Continuity Chart

Revolution, World Wars, and Depression

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Because of European competition for colonies in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, the delicate balance of power that had existed in Europe after the Congress of Vienna gradually eroded. European rivalries negotiated new alliances that led to warfare, while conditions in Russia culminated in a new form of government. Mexico underwent a liberal revolution and Chinese dynastic rule ended with the fall of the Qing. The economic devastation of World War I led to global depression and extremism in the form of fascist ideology. The conclusion of World War II brought the end of the period of European dominance and the rise of two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union.

Key Terms

An asterisk ( *) denotes items listed in the glossary.

Allied Powers*

Anschluss *

appeasement*

British Commonwealth*

Central Powers*

Duma*

fascism*

Great Depression

Holocaust*

League of Nations*

mandate*

Mexican Revolution

Pan-Slavic movement*

Potsdam Conference*

reparations*

Revolution of 1905*

Russo-Japanese War*

Russification*

Spanish civil war*

Tehran Conference*

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk*

Treaty of Versailles*

United Nations*

Yalta Conference*

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Revolutions in Mexico and China

Revolution in Mexico

In 1876, Porfirio Díaz was elected president of Mexico. For the next 35 years, he continued the economic growth of the rule of his predecessor, Benito Juárez. Díaz encouraged foreign investment, industries, and exports. In contrast to other Latin American countries such as Argentina and Brazil, Mexico was not the destination of many immigrants; its population, therefore, was largely native. Often economic growth did not benefit the peasants and working classes. Opponents of Díaz were arrested or exiled and election fraud was common.

In 1910, the middle class began a movement for election reform. Soon joined by workers and peasants, the reform movement escalated into a ten-year-long rebellion known as the Mexican Revolution. The revolution ended in a new constitution that guaranteed land reform, limited foreign investments, restricted church ownership of property, and reformed education.

Revolution in China

The leaders of the movement that brought down the Qing dynasty were Western-educated reformers who wanted to model China’s government along Western lines. Sun Yat-sen, one of the movement’s chief leaders, also intended to carry out reforms to benefit peasants and workers. Although they admired some aspects of Western society, the revolutionaries envisioned a China free of foreign Imperialists. In 1911, opposition to Qing reliance on Western loans for railway improvements led to a final rebellion that toppled the Qing in 1912. Centuries of Chinese dynastic rule had come to an end.

Background of World War I

Three forces interacted to set the scene for World War I:

• Nationalism––an intense pride in one’s nation and its people

• Imperialism––the acquisition of colonies

• Militarism––the maintenance of standing armies

Added to these three forces was a system of entangling alliances that complicated international relations in the event of war.

The immediate cause of World War I was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia, by a Serbian Nationalist protesting against the Austrian annexation of Bosnia. In the aftermath of the assassinations, Germany supported Austria in a declaration of war against Serbia. Serbia, a Slavic nation, was in turn linked to Russia’s ethnic policies. By the early twentieth century, Russia’s policy of Russification , or insistence on the acceptance of Russian culture by its various ethnic groups, had broadened into a Pan-Slavic movement that was designed to bring all Slavic nations into a commonwealth with Russia as its head. Russia, therefore, began to mobilize its troops in defense of Serbia.

Within a few weeks after the assassination at Sarajevo, the system of European alliances had brought the world into war. Two alliances faced off against each other: the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria; and the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan, and later, the United States. British Commonwealth members Canada, Australia, and New Zealand took an active part fighting on the Allied side. In 1917, China also declared war on Germany. Subject peoples of Europe’s colonies in Asia and Africa participated in the war as combatants and support personnel. Many colonial peoples hoped to be granted independence as a result of their war efforts.

Throughout the early war years the U.S. government sold arms to the Allies, while U.S. bankers lent money to the Allied nations. In 1917, the United States was drawn into World War I by two events: Germany’s declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare and Great Britain’s interception of the Zimmermann Telegram. The telegram proposed that, if Mexico would enter the war as an ally of Germany, the German government would assist Mexico to recover the territory it had lost to the United States as a result of the Mexican War. U.S. entry into World War I provided the Allies with additional supplies and freshly trained troops, two factors that helped turn the tide of war in favor of the Allies.

Revolution in Russia

Nationalism and a mutual desire to control Korea led to war between Russia and Japan in 1904. When the Russo-Japanese War ended in Russian defeat in 1905, an uprising known as the Revolution of 1905 forced Tsar Nicholas II to allow the Duma , or Russian Parliament, to convene. When Nicholas abolished the Duma a few weeks later, small groups of radicals began planning the overthrow of tsarist rule.

In March 1917, Russia’s decline as a world power, peasant dissatisfaction, political repression, and the human and financial costs of World War I brought about the end of tsarist rule. After a weak provisional government failed to maintain social order, a second revolution in October 1917 brought the Bolsheviks, or Communists, into power. The new government, led by V. I. Lenin, decided that Russia was too devastated by revolution to continue the war. In March 1918, Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , which ceded vast amounts of Russian territory to Germany.

Between 1918 and 1921, Russia was engaged in a civil war in which the Bolsheviks, or Red Army, solidified their power over supporters of tsarist rule and wealthy landowners. The opposing forces, or White Army, were supported by troops from the United States, France, Great Britain, and Japan.

Peace Settlements

Several peace treaties were signed following the war’s end in November 1918; the most well known was the Treaty of Versailles between most of the Allied nations and Germany. As a result of the Treaty of Versailles:

• A war guilt clause placed total blame for the war on Germany.

• Germany was assigned reparations payments of $33 billion.

• Germany lost its colonies.

• Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France.

• Germany’s military power was severely limited.

• The coal-rich Rhineland was demilitarized.

• A League of Nations was established to work for international peace. The dream of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, the League’s future impact was weakened when the United States refused to join. (The United States later signed a separate peace treaty with Germany.) Also, Germany and Russia were forbidden to join the League.

Other Outcomes of World War I

Because of World War I:

• An entire generation of young European men was almost wiped out.

• Italy and Japan were angered at not receiving additional territory.

• The Ottoman Empire was reduced to the area of present-day Turkey.

• China lost territory to Japan and became a virtual Japanese protectorate.

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved.

• The new nations of Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia were formed from Austria-Hungary. All three nations contained within their borders a variety of ethnic groups with their own Nationalist aspirations.

• Russia lost territory to Romania and Poland. Finland, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania gained their independence.

• Poland was restored to the European map. A Polish Corridor was created to give Poland an outlet to the Baltic Sea.

• The Ottoman Empire was divided into mandates with Great Britain controlling Iraq and Pakistan, and France acquiring Syria and Lebanon.

Great Depression

The cost of war in Europe devastated the economies of European nations on both sides of the conflict. When Germany announced it was unable to make its reparations payments to the former Allies, Great Britain and France were unable to fully honor repayment of their war debts to the United States. The agricultural sector in Europe and the United States suffered from overproduction that resulted in a decline in farm prices. Farmers in Western Europe and the United States borrowed to purchase expensive farm equipment. Overproduction also resulted in lower prices on plantation-grown crops in Africa and Latin America.

As the economic situation in Europe worsened, banks began to fail. In 1929, when the economy and banking systems in the United States also crashed, the United States was unable to continue its loans to European nations. Global trade diminished, creating massive unemployment not only in Europe and the United States but also in Japan and Latin America.

The economic distress of the Great Depression created various reactions in the political arena. In the West, new social welfare programs broadened the role of government. In Italy and Germany, fascist governments developed. Japan’s search for new markets was accompanied by increased imperial expansion.

World War II

Prelude to War

The fragmented political order that was the legacy of World War I combined with the economic distress of the Great Depression created the second global conflict of the twentieth century. Fascist governments (Nationalist, one-party authoritarian regimes) arose in Germany and Italy. The Nationalist Socialist (Nazi) Party of Adolf Hitler sought to redress the humiliation Germany had suffered in the Treaty of Versailles and to expand German territory. Fascism in Italy under Benito Mussolini hoped to restore the lost glories of the state. In Japan, competition among extreme Nationalists led to the rise of military rule in the 1930s.

Military expansionist policies during the depression created the stage for war:

• In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria. The goal was to create a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and the Japanese and to make Manchuria’s coal and iron deposits available to resource-poor Japan.

• In 1935, Hitler began to rearm Germany.

• In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia.

• In 1936 to 1939, the Spanish Civil War brought into power the fascist regime of Francisco Franco. It served as a dress rehearsal for World War II, as Germany and Italy aided Franco, while the Soviet Union sent supplies and advisers to his republican opponents. Pablo Picasso expressed his view of the horrors of the Spanish Civil War in his painting Guernica .

• In 1937, the Japanese invaded China, whose opposition was a threat to their presence in Manchuria. The event signaled the beginning of World War II in Asia.

• In 1938, Hitler proclaimed Anschluss , or the unification of Austria with Germany.

• In 1938, Hitler annexed the Sudetenland, the German-speaking western portion of Czechoslovakia.

• In 1938, the Munich Conference followed a policy of appeasement , in which Great Britain and France accepted Hitler’s pledge not to take any further territory.

• In 1939, Hitler annexed all of Czechoslovakia.

• In 1939, Hitler signed a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union.

• On September 1, 1939, Hitler attacked Poland, marking the beginning of World War II in Europe.

Opposing Sides

Two opposing sides arose, with the major powers including:

• The Axis Powers ––Germany, Italy, and Japan

• The Allied Powers ––Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union

Course of the War

World War II was fought in two theaters: the Pacific and the European, which included the Middle East and Africa. In an effort to control the oil reserves of Southeast Asia, Japan seized Indochina from France and attacked Malaysia and Burma. When the United States imposed an embargo against Japan as a result of these actions, Japan retaliated by attacking the U.S. fleet anchored at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. The Japanese attack brought the United States and its greater industrial power into the war on the side of the Allied powers.

The early years of the war showcased Axis strength. In 1941, the tide began to turn in favor of the Allies when Hitler undertook an unsuccessful winter invasion of Russia and the United States entered the war. When Hitler was forced to withdraw his forces from Russia in 1942, Soviet armies began their advance through Eastern Europe and into Germany. After deposing Mussolini, Allied forces pushed into France and met in Germany in April 1945. Hitler’s subsequent suicide was followed by Allied victory in Europe in May 1945.

After victory in Europe, the Soviet Union assisted in the Allied effort against Japan. After the U.S. use of atomic bombs against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Japanese surrendered in August 1945, ending World War II.

Cost of the War

World War II took a devastating toll in human life, killing about 35 million people, including about 20 million in the Soviet Union. The Holocaust , Hitler’s elimination of European Jews in gas chambers, took the lives of six million. Other groups such as Gypsies, Slavs, political prisoners, and Jehovah’s Witnesses were also sent to extermination camps during the Holocaust. More than 300,000 were killed by the Japanese offensive in China, most of them in the city of Nanking. The fire bombings of Japanese cities and of the German city of Dresden added tens of thousands to the death toll. Nearly 80,000 were killed in Hiroshima, and tens of thousands were killed in Nagasaki.

Designing the Peace

World War II peace settlements began before the war had ended:

• In 1943, at the Tehran Conference , the Allied powers decided to focus on the liberation of France, allowing the Soviet Union to move through the nations of Eastern Europe as it advanced toward France. The Soviet Union, therefore, gained ground and influence in Eastern Europe.

• In 1945, at the Yalta Conference , the Soviet Union agreed to join the war against Japan in exchange for territory in Manchuria and the northern island of Japan. The Yalta Conference also provided for the division of Germany into four zones of occupation after the war.

• In 1945, the Potsdam Conference gave the Soviets control of eastern Poland, with Poland receiving part of eastern Germany. It made the final arrangements for the division of Germany and also divided Austria.

After the war had ended:

• The United States occupied Japan.

• Korea was divided into U.S. and Soviet occupation zones.

• China regained most of its territory, but fighting between Nationalist and Communist forces resumed.

• Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia became Soviet provinces.

• Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania were occupied by the Soviet Union.

• Colonies renewed their independence efforts.

• European world dominance ended.

• A new international peace organization, the United Nations , was created in 1945, with the United States among its key members.

• International dominance remained in the hands of two superpowers––the United States and the Soviet Union.

Rapid Review

---

The forces of nationalism, imperialism, and militarism combined with entangling defense alliances produced the first global war of the twentieth century. Postwar peace settlements created new nations without consideration of ethnic differences within those nations. The Treaty of Versailles left Germany economically and militarily devastated and humiliated by the war guilt clause. The costs of war ruined regional economies and world trade, creating a depression that reached most regions of the world. Out of the despair of the Great Depression arose new political institutions, including fascism in Germany and Italy and military rule in Japan. The world found itself at war for the second time in the twentieth century. Millions died in the Holocaust, while the atomic age was launched with the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The lessons of war created an attempt at a new world order that included a stronger international organization, the United Nations.

Review Questions

---

1 . World War I was considered a global conflict because

  (A) it involved battles on every continent

  (B) it was fought in both European and Pacific theaters

  (C) the warring powers held colonies that participated in the war

  (D) it began in Europe, whose culture dominated the globe in the early twentieth century

2 . Russia’s role in twentieth-century global conflicts included all of the following EXCEPT

  (A) an ethnic-based alliance with Serbia

  (B) providing opportunity for Germany to turn its attention to France

  (C) participation in the formation of the League of Nations

  (D) creating opportunities for postwar influence in Eastern Europe

3 . Spain did not participate in World War II because

  (A) its republican government feared a Fascist coup

  (B) it was still recovering financially from World War I

  (C) it feared Communist domination

  (D) it had just endured a civil war

4 . The Allied policy toward Hitler in the 1930s can best be described as one of

  (A) confrontation

  (B) appeasement

  (C) containment

  (D) indifference

5 . All of the following are true of communism after World War II EXCEPT that

  (A) it produced a division in Korea

  (B) Eastern European countries were subjected to Soviet occupation

  (C) it spread to largely agricultural regions

  (D) it created a pause in the civil war in China

6 . In contrast to the period following World War I, that following World War II

  (A) did not produce a single defining peace treaty

  (B) produced an international organization with fewer powers of enforcement

  (C) saw immediate independence for Europe’s African colonies

  (D) disregarded the Soviet war effort

7 . The nation that rose in power during World War I but declined in power during World War II was

  (A) Great Britain

  (B) Japan

  (C) Russia

  (D) Ottoman Empire

8 . The nation that saw a consistent rise in global influence during both world wars was

  (A) Germany

  (B) China

  (C) France

  (D) United States

9 . The French Revolution of 1789 and the Chinese revolt of 1911 were alike in that

  (A) they were initiated by the lower classes

  (B) they were not Nationalist independence movements

  (C) they ended immediately in dictatorship

  (D) they failed to achieve their goals

10 . Both the Mexican revolts of 1821 and 1910

  (A) were initially Creole-backed movements

  (B) ended in the immediate establishment of a republic

  (C) resulted in territorial losses within a few years after the revolt

  (D) involved resistance to foreign influence

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . C The European nations possessed Asian and African colonies that participated in the war in hopes of being granted independence. No World War I battles were fought in Australia or South America (A). World War II was fought in both European and Pacific theaters (B), not World War I. European dominance alone did not give the war its global status (D).

2 . C Because of its early withdrawal from the war and its Communist regime, Russia was not allowed to join the League of Nations. Russia’s Pan-Slavic movement hoped to unite all Slavic peoples, including the Serbs (A). Russia’s early withdrawal from the war allowed Germany to devote its full attention to the defeat of France and other Allies (B). As the Soviet Union pushed toward Germany in the final months of World War II, it moved through Eastern Europe, establishing its presence in that region (D).

3 . D The Spanish Civil War occurred between 1936 and 1939. During World War II, Spain was already Fascist (A). It had not participated in World War I (B). Its Fascist government was firmly in power in 1939 (C).

4 . B An example is the Munich Conference, which allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland in exchange for a pledge to refrain from taking additional territory. Containment (C) was the U.S. policy against communism.

5 . D After World War II, the Chinese civil war, which had been put on hold, resumed. Korea was divided into north and south, with the north under communism (A). In the final months of the war, the Soviet Union occupied many European nations (B), most of them agricultural rather than industrial nations (C).

6 . A World War II peace arrangements were formulated through a series of conferences rather than through one major treaty such as the Treaty of Versailles. The United Nations was a more effective organization than the League of Nations (B). Europe’s African colonies did not begin receiving independence until the 1950s (C). The Soviet Union was included in the Yalta and Potsdam conferences (D).

7 . B Japan rose in power, especially in East Asia, during World War I, but its empire ended after World War II. Great Britain (A) declined in power as a result of both wars. Russia (C) declined in power during World War I, but emerged from World War II as a superpower. The Ottoman Empire ended after World War I (D).

8 . D The United States emerged as a major world power after World War I and a superpower after World War II. The power of European nations declined markedly during both wars (A, C). After World War II, China remained involved in a civil war (C).

9 . B Neither revolution desired independence from a colonial power. The French Revolution was initiated by the bourgeoisie, and the Chinese revolt by the Western-educated middle class (A). The French Revolution ended in the ultimate dictatorship of Napoleon, whereas the Chinese revolution at first attempted to model China’s government after Western republics (C). The French Revolution reached its goal of ending absolute monarchy, while the Chinese revolt ended Qing rule (D).

10 . D The 1821 revolution was an independence movement against Spain, while the 1910 revolution came about in part because of foreign influence during the rule of Díaz. The 1821 revolt was initially backed by mestizos , whereas the later revolt was Creole-backed from its beginning (A). The Mexican republic was established in 1824, three years after the end of the earlier revolt (B). Although the 1910 revolt did not result in territorial loss, the earlier revolution saw the separation of the Central American republics a few years later (C).

Cold War and the Postwar Balance of Power

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The decades following World War II were dominated by the relationship between the two superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union. During the postwar period, the superpowers were almost always on the verge of warfare. As former colonial possessions gained independence, many of them sought aid from the United States or the Soviet Union. As the Soviets extended their dominion throughout Eastern Europe, Asia, and Cuba, the United States attempted to contain Communist expansion.

Key Terms

Afrikaners*

Alliance for Progress*

apartheid*

ayatollah*

Berlin Wall

brinkmanship*

coalition*

cold war*

collectivization*

containment*

Cuban Missile Crisis

Cultural Revolution*

Five-Year Plans*

Geneva Conference*

genocide*

glasnost *

Government of India Act

Great Leap Forward*

Guomindang*

Iron Curtain

Korean Conflict

kulaks*

Marshall Plan*

May Fourth Movement*

New Economic Policy (NEP)*

nonalignment*

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)*

perestroika *

Prague Spring*

purges*

Red Guard*

Sandinistas*

Six-Day War*

Solidarity*

Tiananmen Square*

Truman Doctrine*

Warsaw Pact*

---

Beginnings of the Cold War

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the new postwar world order by stating that an “iron curtain ” dividing free and Communist governments had fallen across Europe. In order to prevent Communist-dominated nations east of the Iron Curtain from spreading totalitarianism, the United States sponsored a program of European recovery known as the Marshall Plan (1947). The program provided loans to European nations to assist them in wartime recovery. The U.S. policy of containment of communism was set forth in 1947 in the Truman Doctrine . When Greece and Turkey were threatened by communism, U.S. President Truman issued his policy, which pledged U.S. support for countries battling against communism.

In 1946, Great Britain, France, and the United States merged their occupation zones into a unified West Germany with free elections. In 1947, Western attempts to promote economic recovery by stabilizing the German currency resulted in a Soviet blockade of Berlin—the divided city located within the Russian zone of occupation. For nearly 11 months, British and U.S. planes airlifted supplies to Berlin until the Soviets lifted the blockade.

Two opposing alliances faced off during the cold war era. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) , led by the United States, was founded in 1949. NATO allied Canada, the United States, and most of Western Europe against Soviet aggression. The Soviet Union responded with an alliance of its eastern European satellites: the Warsaw Pact . U.S.-Soviet rivalry intensified in 1949, when the Soviet Union developed an atomic bomb.

The cold war escalated to military confrontation in 1950 when North Korean forces invaded South Korea. North Korea eventually received the backing of the Soviet Union and Communist China, while a United Nations coalition led by the United States supported South Korea. The Korean Conflict ended with the establishment of the boundary between the two Koreas near the original line.

Beginnings of Decolonization

After the end of World War II, most European nations and the United States decided that their colonies were too expensive to maintain. Within the colonies, renewed nationalist sentiments led native peoples to hope that their long-expected independence would become a reality. In 1946, the United States granted the Philippines their independence. France was alone in wanting to hold on to its colonies in Algeria and Indochina.

Africa

In 1957, Ghana became the first African colony to gain its independence. By 1960, French possessions in West Africa were freed, and the Belgian Congo was granted independence. Independence movements in the settler colonies of Algeria, Kenya, and Southern Rhodesia took on a violent nature. By 1963, Kenya was independent; in 1962 a revolt in Algeria also had ended colonial rule in that country. Southern Rhodesia became the independent state of Zimbabwe in 1980, and in 1990, Namibia (German Southwest Africa, which had been made a mandate of South Africa in 1920) became the last African colony to achieve independence.

In South Africa, the white settler population was divided almost equally between Afrikaners and English settlers. Although the white settlers were a minority, by 1948 the Afrikaners had imposed on South Africa a highly restrictive form of racial segregation known as apartheid . Apartheid prohibited people of color from voting and from having many contacts with whites. The best jobs were reserved for whites only. Apartheid continued after South Africa gained its independence from Great Britain in 1961.

Egypt won its independence in the 1930s; meanwhile, the British continued to maintain a presence in the Suez Canal zone. After Egypt’s defeat in the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, the Egyptian military revolted. In 1952, King Farouk was overthrown; in 1954, Gamal Abdul Nasser was installed as ruler of an independent Egypt. In 1956, Nasser, backed by the United States and the Soviet Union, ended the influence of the British and their French allies in the Suez Canal zone.

In 1967, Nasser faced a decisive defeat once again in the Six-Day War with Israel. His successor, Anwar Sadat, strove to end hostilities with Israel after a nondecisive war with Israel in 1973. Sadat’s policy of accepting aid from the United States and Western Europe has been continued by his successor, Hosni Mubarak, who came to power after the assassination of Sadat by a Muslim fundamentalist.

Effects of Decolonization

Independence did not bring peace or prosperity to most of the new African nations. New states tended to maintain colonial boundaries, meaning that they often cut through ethnic and cultural groups. Sometimes ethnic conflicts turned violent, as in the tribal conflicts in the territories of the former Belgian Congo and the Biafra secessionist movement in southeastern Nigeria.

Soviet Communism

After the Russian civil war, which lasted from 1918 to 1921, Lenin moved quickly to announce a program of land redistribution and a nationalization of basic industries. When his initial programs culminated in industrial and agricultural decline, Lenin instituted his New Economic Policy (NEP) . The NEP permitted some private ownership of peasant land and small businesses; it resulted in an increase in agricultural production.

In 1923, Russia was organized into a system of Socialist republics under a central government and was renamed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The republics were under the control of the Communist Party. When Lenin died in 1924, Joseph Stalin eventually became the leader of the Soviet Union. Stalin’s regime was characterized by purges , or the expulsion or execution of rivals. Especially targeted were the kulaks , wealthy peasants who refused to submit to Stalin’s policy of collectivization . Collectivization consolidated private farms into huge collective farms worked in common by farmers. Farmers were to share the proceeds of the collective farms and also to submit a portion of the agricultural products to the government. Millions of kulaks were executed or deported to Siberia. Even after farmers accepted collectivization, however, lack of worker initiative prevented it from being successful.

Stalin had greater success in improving Soviet industry. He set up a series of Five-Year Plans that concentrated on heavy industry. By the end of the 1930s, the Soviet Union was behind only Germany and the United States in industrial capacity.

Expansion of Soviet Rule

During the final weeks of World War II, the Soviet Union liberated Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and Greece) from Nazi rule. By 1948, these areas, except for Greece, had Communist governments. Yugoslavia’s Communist rule under Marshall Tito did not become a part of the Soviet bloc, attempting instead to forge a style of communism more responsive to its citizens.

In 1956, a Hungarian revolt against repressive Soviet rule was put down by Soviet tanks. When large numbers of East Germans began migrating to West Berlin, the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961 to stem the tide of refugees. In Prague Spring (1968), Czech leader Alexander Dubcek stood up against Soviet oppression, abolishing censorship; the result of his efforts was Soviet invasion. Only in Poland was Soviet rule somewhat relaxed; religious worship was tolerated and some land ownership allowed. In the late 1970s, Solidarity , Poland’s labor movement, challenged the Soviet system.

Soviet Rule after Stalin

In 1956, Nikita Khrushchev rose to power in the Soviet Union. Criticizing Stalin’s ruthless dictatorship, Khrushchev eased up on political repression. In 1962, Soviet construction of nuclear missiles in Cuba brought days of tense confrontation between Khrushchev and U.S. President Kennedy. Khrushchev ultimately backed down, and the missiles were removed. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a classic example of brinkmanship , or the cold war tendency of the United States and the Soviet Union to be on the brink of war without actually engaging in battle. Also during Khrushchev’s regime, the rift between the Soviet Union and Communist China widened.

Latter Decades of the Twentieth Century

In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support Communist combatants in Afghanistan’s civil war. The Soviets withdrew their forces in 1989 after failing to establish a Communist government for Afghanistan.

In the 1980s, economic setbacks and the military power of the United States produced a reform movement within the Soviet Union. The new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, reduced Soviet nuclear armaments. His reform program revolved around the concepts of glasnost and perestroika . Glasnost, meaning “openness,” allowed Soviet citizens to discuss government policies and even criticize them. Perestroika was an economic reform program that permitted some private ownership and control of agriculture and industry. Foreign investments were allowed, and industry was permitted to produce more consumer goods.

Latin America

Mexico emerged from its revolution with a one-party system. The Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) dominated Mexican politics for 70 years.

In Argentina, government was under the control of military leaders who wanted to industrialize the country. Some of them were Fascist sympathizers, among them Juan Perón and his wife, Evita. Although Perón raised the salaries of the working classes, his government controlled the press and denied civil liberties to its citizens. When he died in 1975, Argentina continued to be ruled by military dictators. In 1982, a short war with Great Britain over the Falkland Islands resulted in Argentine defeat.

From 1934 to 1944, and from 1952 to 1959, Cuba was ruled by dictator Fulgencio Batista. U.S. trade relations with Cuba gave it an influence over the island nation. In 1959, the Cubans revolted against the corruption of the Batista regime, replacing it with the rule of a young revolutionary lawyer named Fidel Castro. During the revolution, Batista lost the support of the United States because of his corrupt government.

Shortly after assuming power in Cuba, Castro proclaimed himself a Marxist Socialist. He seized foreign property and collectivized farms. In 1961, Castro terminated relations with the United States and gradually aligned Cuba with the Soviet Union. Also in 1961, the United States sponsored an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles. Cuba’s dependence on the Soviet Union led to the missile crisis of 1962.

Throughout Central America, U.S. businesses such as United Fruit invested in national economies, resulting in a U.S. presence often resented by Central Americans. In Nicaragua, the Sandinistas carried out a protest against U.S. intervention that resulted in a Socialist revolution in the 1980s.

The United States attempted to contain communism in Latin America by supporting governments that professed adherence to democratic principles. It also sponsored programs such as the Alliance for Progress , begun in 1961 and intended to develop the economies of Latin American nations. By the final decades of the twentieth century, the United States changed its position to one of less intervention in Latin America. Under the Carter administration, the United States signed a treaty with Panama that eventually returned control of the Panama Canal to Panama. By the 1980s, the United States was again assuming a more direct role in Central America. In 1990, the United States helped end the Noriega government, which was known for its authoritarianism and control of the drug trade.

Decolonization of India

Indian independence from Great Britain was accomplished largely through the efforts of Mohandas Gandhi, who believed in passive resistance to accomplish his goals. In 1935, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act , which increased suffrage and turned provincial governments over to Indian leaders. Indian independence was delayed by the insistence of some Muslims on a separate Muslim state. In 1947, the British granted India its independence; India followed a path of nonalignment with either superpower.

At the same time that India received its independence, the new nation of Pakistan was created. Pakistan was then divided into eastern and western regions separated by over 1,000 miles of Indian territory. A few years later, Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) also gained independence. Unequal distribution of wealth between the two Pakistans ended in civil war in the early 1970s; in 1972, East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh.

Conflict in Palestine

The Holocaust strengthened international support for a homeland for the Jews. As the Nazis continued their policy of genocide against the Jews, immigration to Palestine increased. When Arab resistance turned to violence against Jewish communities in Palestine, the British placed restrictions on Jewish immigration. In 1948, the United Nations partitioned Palestine into Jewish and Arab countries; the independent state of Israel was proclaimed. Almost immediately, war broke out as Arabs protested the partition. A Jewish victory resulted in the eventual expansion of the Jewish state at the expense of hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs who were exiled from their homes.

Iran

In 1979, the U.S.-backed Iranian government of Reza Shah Pahlavi was overthrown by Islamic Fundamentalists. The middle classes were opposed to the shah’s authoritarian and repressive rule; Iran’s ayatollahs , or religious leaders, opposed the shah’s lack of concern for strict Islamic observance. Iran also was suffering from a fall in oil prices prior to the 1979 revolution.

The new Iranian ruler, the Ayatollah Khomeini, rejected Western culture as satanic, and imposed strict Islamic law, including the veiling of women, on Iran. Saddam Hussein, leader of Iraq, took advantage of Iranian weakness by annexing its oil-rich western provinces. When peace came in 1988, Iran was devastated economically.

Postrevolutionary China

One of the key leaders of the 1911 to 1912 revolt against the Qing dynasty was Western-educated Sun Yat-sen. He briefly ruled China’s new parliamentary government until he relinquished his place to warlord rule. After World War I, the May Fourth Movement (1919) attempted to create a liberal democracy for China. In the same year, Sun Yat-sen and his followers reorganized the revolutionary movement under the Guomindang , or Nationalist party. Marxist socialism also took hold in China, however; and in 1921, the Communist party of China was organized. Among its members was a student named Mao Zedong.

After the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) seized control of the Guomindang. A 1927 incident in which the Guomindang executed a number of Communists in Shanghai so enraged the Communists that civil war broke out. Except for the years during World War II, the Chinese civil war lasted until 1949, when Mao Zedong’s Communists, whose land reforms gained peasant support, were victorious. After their defeat, Jiang Jieshi’s forces fled to the island of Taiwan (Formosa) off the coast of China, while Mao proclaimed the birth of the People’s Republic of China on the Chinese mainland.

After gaining control of China, the Communists contained secessionist attempts in Inner Mongolia and Tibet; some Tibetan opposition exists to the present. China also supported North Korea in its conflict with South Korea in the 1950s.

Once in power, Mao began organizing China along Soviet models. Farms were collectivized, leading to lack of peasant initiative and a decrease in agricultural production. Eager to increase the participation of rural peoples, Mao instituted the Great Leap Forward , which attempted to accomplish industrialization through small-scale projects in peasant communities. The Great Leap Forward proved a resounding failure.

In 1960, Mao was replaced as head of state, although he retained his position as head of the Communist party. The new leaders, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping, instituted some market incentives to improve the Chinese economy. In 1965, Mao launched his Cultural Revolution , a program that used student Red Guard organizations to abuse Mao’s political rivals. Especially targeted were the educated and elite classes; universities were closed. Opposition from Mao’s rivals led to the end of the Cultural Revolution, whereupon relations were opened between China and the United States.

In 1976, both Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong died, paving the way for the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. Deng discontinued collective farming and allowed some Western influence to enter China. His government did not, however, permit democratic reform, as shown in the government’s suppression of students demonstrating for democracy in Tiananmen Square in 1989.

Vietnam

After World War II and the end of Japanese occupation of Vietnam, France was eager to regain its former colony. During Japanese occupation, however, Vietnamese nationalism had materialized under the leadership of Marxist-educated Ho Chi Minh. In 1945, in a document whose preamble echoed that of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the independence of the nation of Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh’s party, the Viet Minh, had control over only the northern part of the country. The French, aided by Great Britain, occupied most of the south and central portions. In 1954, the Vietnamese defeated the French. The Geneva Conference (1954) gave the Viet Minh control of the northern portion of the country while providing for elections throughout Vietnam in two years. With U.S. support, Ngo Dinh Diem was installed as the president of South Vietnam. The required free elections were not held, and pockets of Communist resistance, the Viet Cong, continued to exist in the south.

When Diem’s government proved corrupt and ineffective, the United States arranged for his overthrow. By 1968, hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops were fighting in Vietnam. In 1973, the United States negotiated an end to its involvement in Vietnam; in 1975 the government in the south fell, and all of Vietnam was under Communist control. The neighboring countries of Laos and Cambodia also fell to communism.

Rapid Review

---

The postwar world saw the emergence of two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. The cold war period was one of constant threats of aggression between the superpowers as the Soviet Union sought to expand communism and the United States sought to contain it. Communism spread outside the Soviet Union to Eastern Europe, China, Southeast Asia, North Korea, and Cuba.

After World War II, most colonial possessions gradually achieved their long-awaited independence. Newly independent nations often aligned themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Other nations such as India, however, chose the independence of nonalignment. New nations often experienced conflicts that continue to the present; the first Arab-Israeli war occurred immediately after the establishment of the nation of Israel, and sub-Saharan Africa has experienced a continuing history of ethnic strife.

Review Questions

---

1 . Which Communist leader is most often associated with purges against his rivals?

  (A) Lenin

  (B) Sun Yat-sen

  (C) Mao Zedong

  (D) Stalin

2 . An example of cold war brinkmanship is found in

  (A) the Cuban Missile Crisis

  (B) the Arab-Israeli War

  (C) the Iran-Iraq War

  (D) the Cultural Revolution

3 . The country that was most interested in keeping its colonies after World War II was

  (A) Germany

  (B) France

  (C) Great Britain

  (D) United States

4 . Lenin’s New Economic Policy

  (A) established collective farming

  (B) resulted in decreased agricultural production

  (C) forbade the ownership of private property

  (D) allowed some elements of capitalism

5 . The Communist ruler whose economic policies were most like those of Lenin was

  (A) Mao Zedong

  (B) Deng Xiaoping

  (C) Joseph Stalin

  (D) Jiang Jieshi

6 . Which of the following leaders would have agreed most with the policies of Benito Mussolini?

  (A) Fidel Castro

  (B) Nikita Khrushchev

  (C) Juan Perón

  (D) V. I. Lenin

7 . Which of the following Communist-controlled countries was allowed private land ownership and freedom of worship?

  (A) Czechoslovakia

  (B) Poland

  (C) East Germany

  (D) Hungary

8 . Mikhail Gorbachev allowed all of the following EXCEPT

  (A) the production of consumer goods

  (B) discussion of government policies

  (C) private land ownership

  (D) democratic government

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . D Stalin was noted for his practice of exiling or executing millions of his opponents.

2 . A The Cuban Missile Crisis illustrated that the cold war was fought through diplomacy that placed the superpowers always on the brink of war. Neither the Arab-Israeli War (B) nor the Iran-Iraq War (C) was a conflict between the superpowers. The Cultural Revolution was a repressive policy of Mao Zedong (D).

3 . B France wanted to regain and maintain its colony in Indochina. Germany (A) lost its colonies during World War I, whereas Great Britain and the United States gradually granted independence to their colonies (C, D).

4 . D Lenin allowed some private ownership of land and small businesses (C) and some degree of free market economy. Collective farming was established under Stalin (A). The NEP increased agricultural production (B).

5 . B Deng Xiaoping allowed some elements of a market economy and some foreign investment. Mao and Stalin did not follow these policies (A, C). Jiang Jieshi was not a Communist leader (D).

6 . C Perón’s government followed Fascist models; he was reputed to have had Fascist sympathies. Castro (A), Khrushchev (B), and Lenin (D), all Communists, were opposed to fascism.

7 . B Poland was the only satellite nation that was allowed to experience private land ownership and religious freedom. Neither the Soviet Union nor the other satellite nations listed enjoyed such freedoms (A, C, D).

8 . D Although Gorbachev allowed a measure of free market economy, foreign investments, consumer goods, and free discussion of governmental policies, his government remained dedicated to the ultimate welfare of the state.

End of the Cold War and Nationalist Movements

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: By the late 1980s, economic setbacks in the Soviet Union were producing social unrest. Worldwide Nationalist movements were weakening the hold of Communist regimes upon their people. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 precipitated the end of other Communist governments, culminating in the overthrow of Communist governments in the Soviet Union. As former Soviet republics declared their independence, democratic movements continued throughout the world, especially in Latin America and Africa. The end of communism in the Soviet Union saw the emergence of a single superpower—the United States.

Key Terms

al-Qaeda*

cartels*

International Monetary Fund*

Persian Gulf War*

World Bank*

---

Breakup of the Soviet Union

While Gorbachev was instituting reforms to save the Soviet Empire, the small nations of Eastern Europe were steadily moving toward independence. In 1988, Poland inaugurated a non-Communist government. In 1989, the people of Berlin dismantled the Berlin Wall; by the end of 1990, the two Germanys were reunited. Czechoslovakia ended its Communist government in 1989; it later peacefully separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

The end of communism did not come without discord. A key example was Yugoslavia, where bitter conflict broke out in Bosnia among Muslims, Serbs, and Croats in the early 1990s. Fighting continued in 1998 to 1999 between Serbs and Albanians in the province of Kosovo. In 2004, Kosovo again became the scene of ethnic conflict in the newly founded Republics of Serbia and Montenegro. The province declared its independence in 2008.

Final Days of the Soviet Union and Thereafter

In the summer of 1991, the Baltic republics declared their independence. Independence movements spread throughout the European border republics of Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova, and also in the Muslim regions of central Asia. In December 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Communist party was terminated, and the elected president of the Russian Republic, Boris Yeltsin, became the leader of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

The new commonwealth was faced with conflicts between ethnic groups and also with economic difficulties resulting from its new status outside the Soviet economy. Yeltsin, who initiated policies that allowed for a move toward private enterprise, was faced with continuing opposition during his rule and resigned in 1999. In 2000, a new president, Vladimir Putin, was elected; he was reelected in 2004, and in 2008 was appointed prime minister by the newly elected Russian president. Russia continued to struggle with economic weakness and organized crime. Ethnic clashes, especially within the Muslim-dominated province of Chechnya, plagued the commonwealth.

In 2008, violence broke out as Russian forces entered the democratic republic of Georgia in retaliation for Georgia’s attempt to put down a separatist revolt in the province of South Ossetia. Because Georgia had a security relationship with the United States, the Georgia-Russia conflict renewed concerns of increasing tensions between the Putin government and the United States.

Latin America

At the end of the cold war, more Latin American nations were moving toward democracy. Still, resistance to democratic rule was seen in groups such as the leftist Sendero Luminoso in Peru, which attempted to disrupt free elections in 1990. El Salvador remained under the control of its military, and the government of Nicaragua, no longer under the control of the Sandinistas, had to chart a new course under the direction of its elected president, Violeta Chamorro. The end of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first centuries also saw new challenges to democracy in Colombia and Venezuela. In Colombia, violence caused by drug traffickers and armed rebels resulted in the flight of some Colombian citizens to neighboring countries. In Venezuela, the left-leaning Hugo Chávez was elected president in 1999. Concerned over fluctuating oil prices, Chávez nationalized a number of Venezuelan industries, including petroleum. In 2007, Venezuelans voted down proposed constitutional changes that would have given Chávez additional powers.

Additional issues plagued Latin American nations. Some of them owed large foreign debts; and in some, huge international drug cartels threatened government stability. The end of the twentieth century, however, saw renewed hope for enduring democracies and popular participation in Latin America. In Mexico in 2000, for example, the PRI lost its dominant status with the election of Vicente Fox of the PAN party as president. The new administration continued to struggle with poverty and illegal immigration to the United States.

New Challenges

As communism dissolved in the Soviet Union, new challenges arose in the non-Communist nations. In 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein annexed oil-rich Kuwait, precipitating the Persian Gulf War between Iraq and a U.S.-led coalition of United Nations forces. Saddam Hussein’s defeat and the liberation of Kuwait led to only a short truce. In 2003, the Iraqis were again at war with a U.S.-led coalition over Saddam Hussein’s repressive regime and his potential for unleashing weapons of mass destruction. A new democratically elected Iraqi government executed Saddam Hussein in December 2006.

In 1998, India and Pakistan, long in conflict with each other over the territory of Kashmir, announced their development of nuclear weapons. A 2008 terrorist attack in the city of Mumbai, India, attributed by some to Pakistani terrorist organizations, increased global concern over the unstable relationship between the two countries. The nuclear capacity of North Korea also remained a troublesome issue.

In Africa and Asia, new nations often did not have the resources to further their development and had to look to developed nations or international organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund for assistance. Violent ethnic conflicts plagued both regions. Repeated negotiations failed to bring lasting peace in the Middle East or to settle the problem of Palestinian refugees. Warfare continued between the United States and Iraq and the al-Qaeda terrorist organization of Afghanistan.

The end of the twentieth century saw a series of economic problems throughout parts of Asia and Southeast Asia, especially Japan. By 1999, some recovery was apparent. Hong Kong was returned to the People’s Republic of China in 1997.

In spite of challenges in Africa and Asia, the future appeared hopeful. India remained the world’s largest democracy. In the 1990s, South Africa ended apartheid and held elections in which all adult South Africans had the right to vote. New governments based on increased civil rights were emerging in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Rapid Review

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The breakup of the Soviet Empire in 1991 resulted in the formation of a loose organization of former Soviet republics. Ethnic rivalries continued in the former Soviet republics and in Yugoslavia. Newly founded republics battled with economic problems. In Latin America, repressive governments gradually gave way to more widespread democracy. South Africa saw the end of apartheid and the beginnings of universal suffrage. Challenges remained, especially in the Middle East and South Asia, where Arab-Israeli conflicts continued and U.S.-backed coalitions had been engaged in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Review Questions

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1 . Ethnic strife occurred in the Balkan province of

  (A) Czechoslovakia

  (B) Kosovo

  (C) Hungary

  (D) Belarus

2 . The end of the twentieth century saw

  (A) increased economic prosperity for Japan

  (B) a general decline in democracy throughout Latin America

  (C) ethnic conflict in Russia and in Africa

  (D) the resolution of the problems of Palestinian refugees

3 . Which of the following nations did NOT acquire a new government in the latter years of the twentieth century?

  (A) Nicaragua

  (B) Czechoslovakia

  (C) Germany

  (D) Japan

4 . The world’s most populous democracy is

  (A) United States

  (B) Great Britain

  (C) Canada

  (D) India

5 . Which of the following has been a common problem of both Japan and Russia in the latter years of the twentieth century to the present?

  (A) Ethnic conflicts

  (B) Political instability

  (C) Economic downturns

  (D) Huge foreign debts

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . B Kosovo experienced a renewal of its ethnic conflicts in 2004. The remaining areas mentioned are not located in the Balkans.

2 . C Russia attempted to suppress independence movements from its ethnic groups, whereas Africa experienced conflicts between ethnic groups concerning political and economic dominance. Japan’s economy crashed in the 1990s (A). Democracy made considerable inroads into Latin America (B). Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians remained refugees (D).

3 . D Japan maintained the same government since the time of its occupation after World War II. Nicaragua saw political unrest and a new government (A), whereas Czechoslovakia split between the Czech Republic and Slovakia (B). Germany reunited (C).

4 . D India, with a population of one billion people, is the world’s largest democracy.

5 . C Japan’s economy weakened sharply in the early 1990s, while Russia continued to struggle with the establishment of a market economy. Only Russia experienced ethnic conflicts (A). Neither has seen political instability nor huge foreign debts (B, D).

Global Trade

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The twentieth century witnessed active commercial and trade interactions in virtually every region of the globe. The Great Depression illustrated the impact of a decline in trade in one region over trade throughout the world; an example was the manner in which the imposition of national tariffs in Western Europe and the United States weakened global trade in general. Price and supply manipulations by oil-producing nations in 1973 and 1979 affected the globe. Multinational corporations, often using cheap labor in developing nations, increased their influence. Especially after the decline of communism, more nations implemented free-market economies. Regional trade associations were organized to facilitate trade, and mass consumerism created a truly global marketplace. The following sections summarize key events in global trade between 1914 and the present.

Key Terms

euro*

European Economic Community

European Union*

import substitution industrialization*

McDonaldization

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)*

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)*

World Trade Organization (WTO)*

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Middle East (Southwest Asia)

• In 1960, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded to regulate oil prices and control oil distribution.

• Southwest Asia participated in the international drug trade.

Asia

• By the 1920s, Japanese exports of silk were reduced after the West began production of synthetic fabrics.

• Between the world wars, China prospered in the global drug trade.

• Southeast Asian economies based on rubber exports were damaged by the decline of the U.S. and European automobile industries during the Great Depression.

• By the 1930s, Japanese industrial manufacturers were entering international trade markets.

• By the 1930s, Vietnam had become one of the world’s leading exporters of rice. Like other plantation economies, the production of an export crop left the Vietnamese people without sufficient crops for their families.

• Before World War II, Japan’s regional empire supplied it with food and raw materials. Korean peasants were forced to produce rice for export to Japan and other countries.

• In the 1960s and 1970s, the production of automobiles and electronics in Japan cut into U.S. and Western European manufacture of those products.

• By the 1970s, South Korea was producing inexpensive consumer goods, textiles, steel, and automobiles for worldwide markets.

• By the 1970s, Taiwan competed successfully in global textile trade, including supplying a variety of products to Japan.

• By the 1980s, Hong Kong was noted for its exports of clothing and heavy industry.

• The “McDonaldization ” of world trade extended to the Soviet Union, which opened a McDonald’s in Moscow during the Gorbachev regime.

• Singapore became the world’s fourth largest port. Its factories produced textiles, electronics, and refined oil.

• Indonesia exported exotic woods.

• Korea’s Hyundai Corporation exported automobiles, supertankers, and electronics.

• In 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) .

• Because of significant industrial growth, India and China have markedly increased their demand for oil.

• China, India, the Philippines, and other Asian nations benefitted from employment that was outsourced by U.S. companies. By 2008, India, for years the foremost location for outsourcing, lost some of its outsourcing contracts to other nations such as China and the Philippines.

• The global economic crisis of 2008 to 2009 negatively affected the volume of world trade.

Africa

• After World War I, most African nations did not have the economic resources to purchase industrial goods from other regions.

• European and South African miners prospered in the 1930s from exports of gold and copper from South African mines.

• Since World War II, African nations have had to rely on the sale of minerals and cash crops to finance their fledgling industries. Constant fluctuation in the prices of these goods hampered economic growth.

• Nigeria was an oil-producing country and a member of OPEC.

• Africa exported native art.

Europe

• During World War I, European nations, and Great Britain in particular, failed to recover their dominant export position, losing out to the United States and Japan.

• In the first half of the twentieth century, most Eastern European nations were primarily agricultural, relying on sales of their products to Western Europe.

• The European Economic Community (Common Market) was organized in 1958 by West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It reduced tariffs among member nations and created a common tariff policy for other world nations.

• In 1992, Great Britain joined the European Economic Community, and was later joined by Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain, and Portugal.

• In the mid-1990s, Finland, Sweden, and Austria joined the economic community, now called the European Union .

• In 2002, a common currency, the euro , was accepted by most member nations of the European Union, with Great Britain serving as a notable exception.

Latin America

• World War I and European trade brought prosperity to Latin America. Latin American nations also had to produce for themselves the products they could no longer import from Europe during the war, a concept known as import substitution industrialization .

• The Great Depression caused a decline in the purchase of Latin American products.

• The United States was Cuba’s leading trade partner prior to 1959. Fluctuation in world demands for sugar made Cuban prosperity uncertain.

• After the Cuban Revolution, Cuba’s economy was tied into that of the Soviet Union. Cuba’s economy deteriorated rapidly after the fall of the Soviet Union.

• Colombia was a major participant in the international drug trade.

• Brazil exported exotic woods.

• Venezuela, an OPEC member, and Mexico were oil-producing countries.

• At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Latin American nations were more heavily industrialized than before.

North America

• During World War I, U.S. exports rose so rapidly that, for the first time in its history, the United States became a creditor nation.

• After World War I, the United States exported motion picture films. The United States also distributed food such as wheat and corn to war-torn European nations after both world wars. By the 1960s and 1970s, U.S. fast foods had reached locations around the globe, including the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China. Industrial supplies continued as a major U.S. export throughout the twentieth century.

• In 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect. NAFTA abolished tariffs between Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Opposition to NAFTA broke out among Indians in the Mexican state of Chiapas.

• In Seattle in 1999, demonstrators protested against the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO was established in 1995 in order to organize world trade.

• U.S. trade created a worldwide diffusion of its products and culture. Advertising led to familiar logos and global recognition of U.S. products.

Rapid Review

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Twentieth- and twenty-first-century global economies were so interconnected that a crisis in one sector affected nearly all regions of the globe. Former colonial economies often had difficulty recovering from the production of a plantation cash crop to a diversified economy. East Asian nations proved fierce competitors in the export of automobiles, textiles, and electronics. OPEC oil prices became a major focus of world attention. Mass consumerism characterized the latter years of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century as U.S. values and products diffused throughout most of the world.

Review Questions

---

1 . OPEC

  (A) is an organization of Middle Eastern nations

  (B) originated after the establishment of the European Union

  (C) was founded after NAFTA

  (D) has members in Latin America and Africa

2 . East Asian nations are noted for the export of all of the following products EXCEPT

  (A) textiles

  (B) films

  (C) automobiles

  (D) heavy industry

3 . The impact of regional trade on global trade in the twentieth century was especially noticeable

  (A) on plantations during the imperialist age

  (B) before and during the Great Depression

  (C) after the establishment of NAFTA

  (D) during the revolution in Chiapas, Mexico

4 . The European Union

  (A) established a currency used by all its members

  (B) originated with Great Britain

  (C) has the same basic purpose as NAFTA

  (D) does not adjust tariffs outside the European community

5 . Which of the following cultures has diffused most widely during the period 1914 to the present?

  (A) Japanese

  (B) Russian

  (C) French

  (D) U.S.

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . D Both Venezuela and Nigeria are OPEC members, making response (A) incorrect. OPEC originated about 30 years before the European Union (B) and NAFTA (C).

2 . B The United States is a key exporter of films, whereas the other items listed are exports of Taiwan, Japan, and Korea.

3 . B The imposition of protective tariffs in Europe and the United States during the Great Depression slowed down trade throughout the world. The plantation economies were a better example of the impact of global trade on regional trade (A). The impact of NAFTA is most noticeable in North America (C), as was the anti-NAFTA protest in Chiapas (D).

4 . C Both NAFTA and the EU are regional trade organizations. Some European nations, such as Britain, do not use the euro (A). Britain was not among the first members of the EU (B). The EU adjusted tariffs for other world nations (D).

5 . D The current global culture is most heavily influenced by the United States.

Technological Developments

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The period since 1900 was one of rapid technological developments. From new medical discoveries to more sophisticated military technology to improvements in transportation, technology dominated the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Labor-saving devices in the household increased leisure time, and new forms of mass entertainment filled that leisure time. The space race increased cold war tensions as the development of nuclear weapons raised new uncertainties.

Key Terms

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)*

Helsinki Accords*

Hubble Space Telescope

International Space Station*

service industries*

Sputnik

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World War Firsts

World War I was the first conflict in which several new types of technology were used for the first time. Airplanes were used in combat. Dirigibles, tanks, more sophisticated weaponry, and poison gas also made their debut during the First World War. Radio technology was used during World War I for communication purposes. After the war, radio was extended to commercial and private use. In 1920, the first commercial radio broadcast was aired in Philadelphia. By 1930, millions of U.S. citizens owned radios, which they used to listen to news, sportscasts, and serials (soap operas). Government control of the airwaves in Europe made radio ownership less common on that continent.

World War II and the dropping of the atomic bomb ushered in a new scientific age. The Second World War also added jet engines, tape recordings, and radar to its list of firsts.

Postwar Period

Technology assisted Europe in its recovery from the world wars. New equipment and improved seeds increased agricultural yields, while modern industrial equipment increased production of textiles and metal goods, including automobiles and appliances.

In the 1950s, scientific technology led British and U.S. scientists to discover the composition of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) . Scientific farming based on genetics led to further improvements in seeds and pesticides. Genetic research produced the first incident of animal cloning (a cloned sheep) in Scotland in 1997.

Medical treatments and sanitation improved. New drugs, such as penicillin (discovered in 1928), as well as immunizations against diphtheria and poliomyelitis lowered the death rate. X-rays, ultrasound, and imaging assisted medical diagnoses. Indoor plumbing improved sanitation.

In 1949, the Soviet Union developed its own atomic bomb. From that time until the 1980s, both the United States (1952) and the Soviet Union (1953) built hydrogen bombs and developed ever more sophisticated weapons of war and defense. In 1972, as a result of the nuclear arms race, European countries convened a conference on security issues in Helsinki, Finland. In 1975, the Helsinki Accords called for contacts between nations on both sides of the Iron Curtain and also addressed the issue of human rights.

Space Age

The twentieth century saw the exploration of new horizons in space. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik , the first satellite, and in 1961 sent the first manned flight into space. The United States soon followed in the space race, succeeding in landing astronauts on the moon in 1969. In the 1970s, the United States and the Soviet Union cooperated in docking spacecraft and later cooperated in work on the International Space Station . Cooperation between the United States and European nations led to the development in 1990 of the Hubble Space Telescope , which is capable of observing objects in remote areas of the universe. U.S. orbiter landings on Mars have provided opportunities for investigation of potential landing sites on the Red Planet.

Entertainment Technology

The film industry created new opportunities for entertainment, especially after the addition of sound in the late 1920s. By the early 1950s, television had begun to enter many homes in the West. In the 1970s, the entertainment industry born in Hollywood was surpassed by Bollywood, the name given to the film industry based in Mumbai, India. Since the 1970s, India has ranked as the world’s largest film producer.

Technology in the Information Age

As the world’s societies entered the twenty-first century, more and more of the world’s citizens were linked by computer technology, cellular phones, video games, and electronic readers. Robots, first used in Japan and adopted in Europe for use in mines and the automobile industry, increased industrial productivity. More people in the postindustrial world worked in service industries because of increased mechanization of agriculture and industry.

Rapid Review

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World Wars I and II saw a number of technological firsts, from improved transportation and communications to more elaborate weaponry. The atomic bomb ushered in a nuclear age that was among the focal points of the cold war era. Technology created new leisure time activities, improved sanitation, and helped in the discoveries of new breakthroughs in medical science. The use of technology to transmit information characterizes the twenty-first century.

Review Questions

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1 . Postindustrial economies are characterized by a large number of people involved in

  (A) manufacturing

  (B) mining

  (C) agriculture

  (D) service industries

2 . Which of the following was NOT used first during World War I?

  (A) Tanks

  (B) Airplanes

  (C) Radar

  (D) Dirigibles

3 . The Helsinki Accords

  (A) were a reaction against the insecurities of the nuclear age

  (B) were a nuclear disarmament plan

  (C) increased cold war rivalries

  (D) called for a reduction in manned space flights

4 . Technology in the twentieth century accomplished all of the following EXCEPT

  (A) unmanned space flights

  (B) genetic engineering

  (C) use of robotics

  (D) invention of railroads

5 . Twentieth-century inventions and accomplishments

  (A) did nothing to improve household chores

  (B) popularized radio, especially in Europe

  (C) saw continued U.S.-Soviet competition throughout the twentieth century

  (D) were sometimes detrimental to the quality of life

Answers and Explanations

---

1 . D Postindustrial economies, in which agriculture, mining, and industry are highly productive, feature relatively large numbers of employment opportunities in service industries.

2 . C Radar was first used in World War II. The other answer choices were initially used in World War I.

3 . A The Helsinki Accords called for communication between Communist and non-Communist nations, making (C) an incorrect response. They did not address nuclear disarmament (B) or space flights (D).

4 . D Railroads were a nineteenth-century invention, whereas the remaining response choices were developed in the twentieth century.

5 . D Twentieth-century developments included nuclear weaponry. They also included household appliances (A). At the end of the twentieth century, the United States and the Soviet Union cooperated in space dockings and an international space station (C). Radio was more popular in the United States than in Europe (B).

Social Changes

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: The twentieth-century world wars produced two basic responses—the first, a feeling of skepticism concerning the future and, the second, the desire to possess the many new products on the market after both wars. In an attempt to secure a comfortable future for their citizens, Western and Japanese governments established social welfare systems, particularly for the aged. Women’s rights increased at the same time that traditional female roles persisted. A new global culture saw the dominance of Western influence.

Key Terms

cubism*

evangelical*

fundamentalism*

Kabuki theater*

Liberation Theology*

mass consumerism*

National Organization for Women (NOW)*

New Deal*

No theater*

welfare state*

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Society After World War I

During the 1920s, Western society, most noticeably the United States, saw a rise in mass consumerism , especially in household appliances and in automobiles. The automobile decreased isolation and also allowed new freedoms for some adolescents in the United States. Some women turned to fashions that called for shorter skirts and hairstyles and behavior that allowed freer self-expression.

The movie industry was not only an outlet for artistic expression but also a new source of family entertainment. Modern painters such as Pablo Picasso combined geometric figures with non-Western art styles, particularly African, to create a new style called cubism . Modern architecture featured the use of concrete and broad expanses of glass.

At the same time, postwar Western society was characterized by a general feeling of skepticism. The devastation brought by the century’s first global war was heightened by the despair of the Great Depression. Working classes and middle classes faced the prospect of unemployment or reduced salaries. In Japan, the depression increased suspicions of the Western way of life. Western states provided old age and medical insurance that eventually led to the institution of the welfare state . In the United States, the New Deal took government spending to new heights in an attempt to resolve the economic stagnation of the depression and provide for social security programs. Western European governments began to provide assistance to families with several children.

Post–World War II Western Society

After World War II, more women entered the workforce. Divorce was made more accessible, and effective birth control more conveniently available with the introduction of the birth control pill. Many European countries provided day care centers for working mothers. In the United States, the National Organization for Women (NOW) , founded in 1966, campaigned for women’s rights. The role of the church in family life declined as church attendance fell, especially in Europe.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the United States experienced a civil rights movement that ended segregation of African Americans and increased voting rights. Student protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War swept university campuses in the 1960s and early 1970s.

In the 1970s and 1980s, some Westerners began to question the concept of the welfare state. Both Great Britain and the United States elected leaders who adopted more conservative approaches toward government spending. Welfare programs were decreased under the leadership of Britain’s Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and U.S. President Ronald Reagan. Western European economic growth soared during the 1980s, producing a marked increase in consumer goods. Educational opportunities broadened throughout the world.

Society in the Soviet Union

Soviet leaders also built a system of welfare services, including protection for the sick and the aged. Soviet schools taught that religion was a myth. Western styles of art were denounced as decadent.

By the 1950s, the Soviet Union and most Eastern European nations were industrialized. Unlike the Western world, factories in the Communist bloc favored the production of heavy goods over consumer goods. As industrialism spread through Eastern Europe, more families engaged in sports activities and movie and television viewing. By the 1960s, cultural exchanges with the West gave Soviet citizens some contact with Western media and ways of life. An emphasis on sports programs made Soviet athletes intense competitors in the Olympic games.

Japan

In the 1920s, Japan also experienced a rise in mass consumerism. The film industry became popular, and secondary education reached greater numbers of students. After World War II, the new U.S.-influenced government in Japan provided for women’s suffrage and abolished Shintoism as the state religion. The Japanese preserved their traditional respect for their elders by creating a social security system for the elderly. After the end of the U.S. occupation, the Japanese government began asserting more control over the lives of its citizens, including controlling the content of student textbooks. Traditions such as the tea ceremony, Kabuki, and No theater continued.

Japanese work schedules allowed for less leisure time than in Western societies. One leisure activity that became extremely popular was baseball, introduced to Japan during the U.S. occupation. Women continued to occupy traditional homemaking and childrearing roles.

China

China’s May Fourth Movement (1919) honored the role that women had played in the Chinese revolution by increasing women’s rights. Footbinding was outlawed, and women were given wider educational and career opportunities. Although the Guomindang attempted to return Chinese women to their more traditional roles, Chinese Communists gave them a number of roles in their revolution. Women were allowed to bear arms in the military. Since the institution of Mao’s government in 1949, Chinese women have been expected to work outside the home while maintaining their traditional responsibilities in the home as well.

Latin America

After the Mexican Revolution, Mexican artists such as Diego Rivera painted murals on public buildings. The murals depicted scenes from the revolution and hopes for social progress in the future. Latin American folk culture includes strong elements of the Native Indian and African cultures. Although the region remains largely Roman Catholic, the latter decades of the twentieth century and the beginnings of the twenty-first century saw significant increases in the popularity of evangelical Protestant denominations throughout Latin America. Also popular in Latin America as well as in sub-Saharan Africa is Liberation Theology , a belief that emphasizes social justice for victims of poverty and oppression.

Throughout the twentieth century, Latin American women tended to retain their traditional roles. Women were not allowed to vote until 1929, when Ecuador became the first Latin American nation to allow women’s suffrage. By the latter part of the twentieth century, Latin American women controlled small businesses and were sometimes active in politics, including membership in legislatures.

Africa

Women’s suffrage was written into the constitutions of new nations. The participation of women in African independence movements was rewarded, resulting in some opportunities for women to hold political office. Many of the new nations also granted women increased opportunities for education and employment. Early marriage, however, often continued to confine women to traditional roles. Government imposition of shariah law in regions of Nigeria and other Muslim-dominated African nations threatened not only the independence but also the security of women.

A Global Culture

In today’s world, the global culture has been dominated by Western trends and styles, a situation that has especially produced disapproval in East Asian and Islamic cultures. English is the language of commerce and of the Internet. The Western appreciation for science has been a hallmark of the global age.

Sometimes reactions to globalization created changes in religious beliefs and practices. Beginning in the 1960s, New Age religions, dependent on astrology, emerged. Fundamentalism , or the return to traditional beliefs and practices, became the goal of many practitioners of major religions, especially Christianity and Islam.

The new global culture placed more emphasis on monetary wealth, education, and professional position rather than on land ownership or inherited position. At the same time, traditions continued. In India, for example, remnants of the caste system caused some Indians to cling to caste restrictions even though they had been outlawed. Laws of almost all nations allowed women’s suffrage. The global culture continued to display regional traditions and characteristics, while national pride surfaced in international athletic competitions such as the Olympic Games and World Cup Soccer, or Federal International Football Association (FIFA).

Rapid Review

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In the interim between the world wars and after World War II, labor-saving devices transformed leisure time in Europe and the United States. Movies and television provided family entertainment, whereas the automobile created a new lifestyle for Western teenagers. Governments instituted welfare programs, and women’s political rights were broadened worldwide. Religion declined in popularity, especially in Europe, and the Soviet Union denounced the importance of religion. Although women’s rights were increased, women were expected to continue to carry out traditional roles. The new global culture emphasized the importance of professional status and knowledge over family social position. The dominance of Western culture and the English language met with disapproval in some Eastern and Islamic cultures.

Review Questions

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1 . By the twenty-first century, almost all women across the globe

  (A) were freed from traditional homemaking roles

  (B) were allowed to serve in combat in the armed forces

  (C) were granted educational opportunities equal to men

  (D) had been granted the right to vote

2 . In the twentieth century, a blend of African and Western cultures could be found most readily in

  (A) architecture

  (B) literature

  (C) painting

  (D) sculpture

3 . What did the Soviet Union, Japan, the United States, and Western Europe have in common in the twentieth century?

  (A) A program of social security for the aged

  (B) Free elections

  (C) An emphasis on the production of consumer goods

  (D) An appreciation for Western styles in art

4 . Which of the following is true concerning the status of religion in the twentieth century?

  (A) European church membership declined significantly.

  (B) Catholicism gained a stronger hold in Latin America.

  (C) The United States encouraged the Japanese to maintain the traditional status of Shintoism.

  (D) Hindu traditions were abolished in India.

5 . Which of the following is true regarding the role of women in Communist China?

  (A) Military service was limited to support roles.

  (B) They were discouraged from working outside the home.

  (C) Restrictive Confucian tradition was outlawed.

  (D) They had fewer rights than under the Guomindang.

Answers and Explanations

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1 . D The twentieth century ended with women’s suffrage granted in almost all nations. Most societies still expected women to maintain their traditional roles (A). Although educational and career opportunities for women increased (C) they were generally not as broad as those for men. Most nations did not allow women in combat, with China and the Soviet Union notable exceptions (B).

2 . C Picasso’s cubist paintings often featured African themes combined with the geometric designs of the modern cubist style.

3 . A All have social security programs for the elderly, whereas the Soviet Union did not have free elections (B), an emphasis on consumer goods (C), or an appreciation for Western art styles (D).

4 . A After World War II, European church membership declined significantly. Protestantism made substantial inroads into Latin American religion (B), whereas the U.S. occupation ended the status of Shintoism as a state religion (C). Although the Hindu caste system was legally ended, many Indians continue its traditions (D).

5 . C Footbinding, a Confucian tradition, was outlawed. Chinese women were allowed to serve in combat (A). Women were encouraged to work outside the home, but were still expected to fulfill their traditional home obligations (B). Women had more rights under communism than under the Guomindang (D).

Demographic and Environmental Developments

IN THIS CHAPTER

Summary: Although the Industrial Revolution generated overall improvements in living standards, it also caused atmospheric pollution in industrialized cities. Environmental challenges of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries included efforts to resolve poor environmental quality from industrial and automobile emissions. Potential threats to the environment also resulted from oil spills, the devastation of warfare, and the danger of meltdowns from nuclear plants.

Since 1914, warfare, famine, disease, and migration have affected global population distribution. Most migrants moved from developing to developed nations in search of improved economic opportunities.

Key Terms

Green Revolution*

guest workers*

ozone depletion*

xenophobia*

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War Years

World War I resulted in the deaths of 10 million Europeans and eliminated nearly a generation of young European men. The lack of potential husbands forced many European women to remain unmarried. The drastic decline in marriages lowered the European birth rate and population growth in future generations. Bombs and troop movements destroyed cities, factories, and agricultural land. Another 35 million people lost their lives in World War II. Because of postwar boundary changes, hundreds of thousands of displaced persons were forced to relocate.

Population Changes

Rapid population growth, especially in developing nations, became a persistent concern of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Sometimes religious and cultural beliefs prohibited efforts at population control. In the early twentieth century, efforts to eradicate disease and improve sanitation led to marked population increases in developing nations in Asia. In Africa, which began the century with low population levels, high birth rates, and lower mortality rates resulted in significant population increases. These population trends continued in spite of the high incidence of AIDS in Africa.

Despite advances in health care, those living in poverty continued to struggle with diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, and malaria. New epidemics emerged, such as the influenza pandemic of 1918 to 1919, Ebola, and AIDS. The incidence of diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, and diabetes increased because of increases in life expectancy and lifestyle changes.

In Europe, the population decline and labor shortages of the 1950s and 1960s caused Western European governments to seek workers from southern Europe and the non-Western world. Many of these guest workers migrated to Western Europe from the West Indies, North Africa, Turkey, and Pakistan. Guest workers received very low wages and were often subjected to discrimination and violence from Western Europeans. This discrimination heightened in the 1980s because of a slowdown in European economies and the growing size of the guest worker population. Not all immigrants were welcomed. Xenophobia , an intense fear of foreigners, often was shown in protests, race riots, and government policies restricting citizenship.

In contrast to European demographic patterns, East Asian countries experienced high population growth. By the 1980s, for example, South Korea had the highest population density in the world. As a result, many South Koreans migrated to other countries. The government of South Korea encouraged its people to limit the size of their families, while the Japanese government addressed its ever-increasing population by promoting birth control and abortion.

The People’s Republic of China attempted to control its huge population by instituting policies designed to limit family size. In the 1960s, rural couples were limited to one child and urban couples to two. By the 1980s, only one child per family was allowed. These programs greatly reduced the Chinese birth rate at the expense of forced abortions and sterilizations. Female infanticide increased. Other infants were hidden among family members in rural areas where recordkeeping was not as accurate as in urban areas. By 2007, the one-child policy had relaxed in some regions of China to permit urban couples who themselves were only children to give birth to two children.

In Central Asia, the Soviet Union experienced ethnic divisions as a result of population changes. By the 1970s, the Muslim population in the southern Soviet republics had grown rapidly and presented a threat to the dominance of the Russian culture.

Efforts to Improve Agricultural Production

One of the solutions to growing population concerns was to improve agricultural productivity in developing nations. The Green Revolution was a program that increased crop yields through the use of high-yield, disease-resistant crops, as well as fertilizers, pesticides, and efficient irrigation methods. Especially effective in India and other parts of Asia, it also experienced some success in Latin America. The Green Revolution was criticized for its use of pesticides and fertilizers that caused pollution and cancer. Also, chemicals were expensive, making the program more accessible to large landowners and agricultural businesses.

In Egypt, President Nasser attempted to improve agricultural productivity through the construction of the Aswan Dam. Although the project provided additional farmland, its interference in the normal flood patterns of the Nile River deprived the land of the fertile silt deposited by the Nile’s flooding. Also, parasites that caused blindness appeared in greater numbers, and increased deposits of salt were found in the soil.

Migration Patterns

After World War I, the population of Latin America swelled as immigrants continued to pour into Argentina and Brazil as well as into other Latin American countries. Urban areas grew rapidly. Latin America experienced sizable migration within the continent as the inhabitants of rural areas migrated to urban regions in search of employment. Newcomers often were forced to live in shantytowns on the outskirts of urban areas. Sometimes these settlements were incorporated into urban areas, resulting in somewhat improved living conditions within the former shantytowns.

In the 1920s, workers from Mexico crossed into the United States at the same time that Central Americans were crossing into Mexico in search of employment. During the 1940s, the United States set up programs with Mexico to provide workers. Hundreds of thousands of migrants, both legal and illegal, continued to cross the border into the United States. Throughout Latin America, migration in search of employment occurred across national borders. Other migrants reached, or attempted to reach, the United States to escape political oppression and warfare. This last group included immigrants from Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, and El Salvador.

Population flight from countries undergoing ethnic or religious strife or alterations in political boundaries remained an issue in the period since 1914. The largest displacement of people in history occurred in South Asia in 1947 and 1948, when the partition of India and Pakistan produced a major migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus to India. The first Arab-Israeli War in 1948 created hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arab refugees. In 1998, in the Balkan region of Kosovo, thousands of ethnic Albanians of the Muslim faith fled the region in the face of Serbian massacres. From 2000 to 2004, religious conflict in Nigeria caused Christians and Muslims to flee to areas where their religion was the majority faith. In the Sudan, inhabitants of the southern region of the country, most of them Christians or practitioners of native religions, were displaced from their homes when Sunni Arabs from the northern regions of Sudan attempted to impose Islamic law upon the southern regions. By 2004, the Sudanese conflict focused on the region of Darfur and involved a conflict between Arab and non-Arab Muslims.

Another pattern of migration involved the movement of South Asians and Arabs toward the oil-producing regions of the Middle East. Also, workers from developed nations including the United States sought employment with their own nation’s companies in the oil fields of the Middle East.

Environmental Concerns

The world faced a number of environmental issues: damage to marine life from oil spills, the danger of meltdowns from nuclear plants, and the devastation of warfare. During the Vietnam War, for example, the United States employed chemical defoliants in South Vietnam. During the Persian Gulf War, Iraq’s Saddam Hussein spilled huge amounts of oil into the Persian Gulf and set fire to Kuwaiti oil fields. Industrial pollution and human waste continued to plague many of the world’s waterways. In Eastern Europe industrialization severely polluted half the area’s rivers and endangered farmland. Pollution was responsible for respiratory diseases and higher rates of infant mortality. Population growth in rural areas of Africa and Asia often led to overgrazing and deforestation; depletion of the rainforest was a factor in global warming.

Some progress in protecting the environment was made. Governments of industrialized nations identified the chemicals that cause ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere and limited their use. Antipollution devices were installed on automobiles, planes, and industrial smokestacks.

Rapid Review

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Population issues in the period since 1914 have revolved around migration and control of population growth. Migration in the period has most frequently been from developing to developed nations and, second, from rural to urban areas. The latter often has resulted in the establishment of shantytowns along the perimeters of major urban areas. Guest workers often became the victims of discrimination, especially in Europe. Although some government programs limited population growth, many rural areas in Africa and Asia suffered from depleted farmland insufficient to handle their populations. Issues of poor air and water quality, global warming, and the devastation wrought by warfare remained.

Review Questions

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1 . Which of the following is the least common migration pattern from the 1960s to the present?

  (A) From Asia to Europe

  (B) From Europe to the United States

  (C) From Mexico to the United States

  (D) From the Middle East to Europe

2 . The largest displacement of people in the twentieth century was

  (A) Albanian refugees leaving Kosovo

  (B) the exchange between Muslim and Hindu areas after the partition of India

  (C) illegal Mexican immigrants to the United States

  (D) displaced persons after World War II

3 . Which of the following is true of population growth since 1914?

  (A) The AIDS crisis has produced a marked decline in African population.

  (B) Religious opposition has caused China to abandon its one-child policy.

  (C) Population growth is not detrimental to rural environments.

  (D) Cultural traditions and religious beliefs often promote population growth.

4 . The key pattern of migration in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been

  (A) from war-torn areas to those at peace

  (B) from rural to urban areas

  (C) from urban to rural areas

  (D) from developing to developed nations

5 . Which of the following was NOT true concerning the Green Revolution?

  (A) It was highly ineffective in increasing agricultural yields.

  (B) It reinforced class distinctions.

  (C) It disseminated pollutants.

  (D) It was an expensive solution to crop improvements.

Answers and Explanations

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1 . B Since the most common pattern of migration in the twentieth century has been from developing to developed nations, migration from Europe to the United States would be the least common of the patterns listed. The remaining answer choices describe migrations from developing to developed countries.

2 . B The migration of Hindus to India and Muslims to Pakistan after the creation of those independent states in 1947 was the largest exchange of peoples in the twentieth century.

3 . D Cultural and religious traditions often oppose efforts to curb population growth. African population continues to grow in spite of AIDS (A). Religious opposition was not the cause of China’s abandonment of its one-child policy (B). Population growth has caused improper land usage, including overgrazing (C).

4 . D The main migration pattern has been from developing to developed nations in search of better economic opportunities.

5 . A The Green Revolution was successful in its goals, especially in India. The expense of the program often led to more benefits for elite than for lower classes (B). Pesticides used in the program caused pollution (C), and the program was expensive (D).

PERIOD 6 Summary: Accelerating Global Change and Realignments (c. 1900 to the present)

Timeline

Key Comparisons

1. Postwar governments of Western nations versus the Soviet bloc

2. Decolonization in Africa versus India

3. Effects of World War I versus the effects of World War II

4. Russian Revolution versus the Chinese Revolution

5. Reactions of Western versus non-Western nations to U.S. consumer society

6. Female roles in China and the West

7. Patterns of immigration in the Eastern versus the Western hemispheres

8. Patterns of economic development in Africa versus Latin America

9. Global trade in the Pacific Rim versus the West

10. Political and economic conditions in Russia before and after communism

Change/Continuity Chart

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PRACTICE TEST

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Answer Sheet

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AP WORLD HISTORY PRACTICE TEST

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Section I

Time: 1 hour, 45 minutes

Part A: Multiple-Choice Questions

Recommended Time for Part A: 55 Minutes

Directions: Each of the incomplete statements or questions below is followed by four answer choices. Choose the answer that is best and mark the letter of your choice on the answer sheet supplied.

Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below.

The condition of foreign states is not what it once was; they have invented the steamship, and introduced radical changes in the art of navigation. They have also built up their armies to a state of great efficiency and are possessed of war implements of great power and precision, in short have license to be formidable powers. If, therefore, we persistently cling to our antiquated systems, heaven only knows what a mighty calamity may befall our Empire.

—Adapted from a letter written by Lord Ii to Lord Tokugawa, 1847

1 . Which event or period in Japan’s history best reflects Lord Ii’s concerns?

  (A) The expulsion of Christian missionaries from Japan

  (B) The adoption of Chinese imperial customs in the Japanese court

  (C) The annexation of Manchuria by the Japanese

  (D) Commodore Perry forcing Japan to open its ports to trade

2 . How did Japan respond to the concerns raised by Lord Ii during this era?

  (A) The government dismantled the Chinese-style civil service system.

  (B) The government undertook a program of conquest in the Pacific.

  (C) The country sent emissaries to study western democracies and industry.

  (D) The country turned inward and closed its ports to all foreigners.

3 . The era in Japanese history following this passage is known as the

  (A) Meiji Restoration.

  (B) Heian period.

  (C) Tokugawa Shogunate.

  (D) Jomon period.

Questions 4 to 6 refer to the passage below.

He contains all works and desires and all perfumes and all tastes. He enfolds the whole universe and in silence is loving to all. This is the Spirit that is in my heart, this is Brahman. To him I shall come when I go beyond this life, and to him will come he who has faith and doubts not.

—The Upanishads, India, c. 1000 BCE

4 . Based on the quotation, what is true of Brahman?

  (A) He is found everywhere and contained in everything.

  (B) He resides in a form of paradise, like Heaven.

  (C) He is found only inside the hearts of the faithful.

  (D) He is a vengeful God, punishing those who sin.

5 . Based on the quotation, which statement is true of the speaker’s religion?

  (A) Salvation is based on the correct completion of rituals.

  (B) There is an expectation of an afterlife.

  (C) Right actions and right speech earn favor with the gods.

  (D) It is a polytheistic religion.

6 . To which religion does the speaker most likely belong?

  (A) Hinduism

  (B) Buddhism

  (C) Shintoism

  (D) Zoroastrianism

Questions 7 to 9 refer to the quotation below.

The invaders had brought in wheat and other Eurasian and African grains; peach, pear, orange, and lemon trees; chick-peas, grape vines, melons, onions, radishes, and much more. A Spanish nobleman come to America could require his Indians to furnish his table with the fruits of his ancestors.

—Alfred Crosby, historian, 1972

7 . The comment quoted above resulted from which of the following processes?

  (A) The Green Revolution

  (B) The Columbian Exchange

  (C) The triangular trade

  (D) The Middle Passage

8 . What was the impact of this process on Europe?

  (A) The population increased due to the increased diversity of crops.

  (B) The population declined as a result of imported disease.

  (C) The population increased due to New World immigrants.

  (D) The population declined because of famine caused by the mass export of crops.

9 . What economic practice is referred to by the phrase “his Indians” in the quote?

  (A) Slavery

  (B) Indentured servitude

  (C) The encomienda system

  (D) The apprentice system

Questions 10 to 14 refer to the image below, which shows the use of a pre-Columbian wooden foot plow.

—Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, 1616

10 . What can one infer from the above illustration?

  (A) Farming practices relied on human labor.

  (B) There was extensive use of irrigation.

  (C) Farming was the exclusive purview of women.

  (D) Animals were valued too highly to be used in the fields.

11 . Metal work and animal-drawn plows were essential parts of the development of complex societies in Africa and Eurasia, but not in the Americas. This would indicate which of the following?

  (A) The role of religion in economic development

  (B) The influence of environmental factors in patterns of development

  (C) That the earliest Americans emphasized warfare at the expense of their own economic development

  (D) That the earliest Americans depended primarily on trade rather than on agriculture to sustain their economies

12 . Which of the following was the major difference between the Aztecs and other early empires?

  (A) The Aztecs had no writing system.

  (B) The Aztecs did not use metallurgy.

  (C) The Aztecs had no wheeled transportation.

  (D) The Aztecs never developed overland trade networks.

13 . A historian arguing that there were limited interregional networks in the Americas might use which of the following as evidence?

  (A) The llama was domesticated in Andean culture, but was not found in Mesoamerica.

  (B) The Andean civilization had extensive roads and bridges, but Mesoamerica did not.

  (C) There was no strong religious tradition in Andean culture, compared with the Maya.

  (D) The Andeans had a system of writing, but the Maya did not.

14 . Chinampas and terraces, used in Aztec and Incan agriculture, both show which of the following?

  (A) Societies adapting to their environments

  (B) Cultural diffusion

  (C) Efforts to reform land ownership

  (D) Coercive labor systems

Questions 15 to 18 refer to the following passage.

But the decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the causes of destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. . . . The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military . . . was relaxed . . . ; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians.

—Adapted from Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , by Edward Gibbon

15 . The reasons given in the above passage for the fall of the Roman Empire could also be applied to which other classical empires?

  (A) Tang and Ottoman

  (B) Ming and Aztec

  (C) Han and Gupta

  (D) Qin and Etruscan

16 . The decline of the Roman Empire and that of its Chinese counterpart resulted in which of the following?

  (A) A decline in the appeal of religions of salvation

  (B) A shift from trade along the Silk Roads to sea routes in the Indian Ocean

  (C) An increased importance of the role of the father as the head of the household

  (D) A decline in the rights of women

17 . Most classical empires shared which of the following traits?

  (A) They required the cultural assimilation of conquered peoples to limit diversity within the empire.

  (B) They provided state support of foreign religions to improve support of the government.

  (C) They embarked on widespread public works projects to integrate their empires.

  (D) They had government bureaucracies based on the merit principle.

18 . The author of the above passage claims: “Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the causes of destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest.” What does he mean by this?

  (A) The rulers became too rich and thus were overthrown.

  (B) The empire became too large to control effectively.

  (C) Decay begins the minute something begins to grow.

  (D) Conquest and prosperity are mutually exclusive.

Questions 19 to 21 refer to the political cartoon below.

—Chain of Friendship, American political cartoon, 1914

19 . The above political cartoon best illustrates which political concept?

  (A) Imperialism

  (B) Nationalism

  (C) Alliances

  (D) Militarism

20 . The order of the countries shown in the cartoon—Serbia–Austria–Russia–Germany–France—supports which of the following statements?

  (A) World War I was a politicians’ war.

  (B) France attacked all the countries that were in front of it in line.

  (C) Russia supported Serbia; France supported Russia.

  (D) World War I was strictly a European war.

21 . Countries that also took part in World War I for varying amounts of time included which of the following?

  (A) Poland, Denmark, and Great Britain

  (B) Switzerland, Greece, and Turkey

  (C) Bulgaria, Italy, and the United States

  (D) Great Britain, Spain, and France

Questions 22 to 24 refer to the drawing below.

22 . One would be most likely to find the above structure useful in understanding which of the following?

  (A) Religious practices in Ur in the period before 600 BCE

  (B) Political organization in Central Asia in the period from 600 BCE to 600 CE

  (C) Cultural diffusion in West Africa in the period from 600 CE to 1450 CE

  (D) Burial practices in Egypt in the period before 600 BCE

23 . The structure depicted in the drawing represents which particular type of architecture common from the preclassical era to the present?

  (A) Monumental

  (B) Funereal

  (C) Theatrical

  (D) Hierarchical

24 . Structures that are similar in design and purpose include which of the following?

  (A) Egyptian pyramids

  (B) Early Chinese pagodas

  (C) Meso-American pyramids

  (D) The Parthenon

Questions 25 to 27 refer to the poem below.

You are the United States,

you are the future invader

of the native America that has Indian blood,

that still prays to Jesus Christ and still speaks Spanish.

. . .

you are Alexander-Nebuchadnezzar.

You think that life is fire,

that progress is eruption,

that wherever you shoot

you hit the future.

No.

. . .

But our America, that has had poets

since the ancient times of Netzahualcoyotl,

. . .

that consulted the stars, that knew Atlantis

whose resounding name comes to us from Plato,

that since the remote times of its life

has lived on light, on fire, on perfume, on love,

America of the great Montezuma, of the Inca,

the fragrant America of Christopher Columbus,

Catholic America, Spanish America,

the America in which noble Cuauhtémoc said:

“I’m not in a bed of roses”, that America

that trembles in hurricanes and lives on love,

it lives, you men of Saxon eyes and barbarous soul.

And it dreams. And it loves, and it vibrates, and it is the daughter of the sun.

Be careful. Viva Spanish America!

There are a thousand cubs loosed from the Spanish lion.

Roosevelt, one would have to be, through God himself,

the-fearful rifleman and strong hunter,

to manage to grab us in your iron claws.

And, although you count on everything, you lack one thing: God!

—Adapted from “To Roosevelt” by Ruben Dario, 1904

25 . What events might have prompted the poet to compose this piece?

  (A) The discovery of the Zimmerman Telegram

  (B) The embargo of Cuba after Castro’s revolution

  (C) U.S. involvement in Panama’s independence

  (D) U.S. involvement in the Haitian Revolution

26 . What was the poet’s purpose in discussing “our America, that has had poets since ancient times, . . . that consulted the stars”?

  (A) Latin America has excelled in poetry.

  (B) Latin America had made significant scientific contributions.

  (C) Latin America had a prophecy regarding these events.

  (D) Latin America has had a rich culture for centuries.

27 . Which statement best reflects the theme of the poem?

  (A) Latin Americans are too naïve and should fight back.

  (B) Latin America has survived many invaders and will endure.

  (C) The Spanish have already destroyed Latin American culture.

  (D) Change is necessary for progress.

Questions 28 to 31 refer to the passage below.

Bonesteel’s prime consideration was to establish a surrender zone as far north as he thought the Soviets would accept. He knew that the Russian troops could reach the southern tip of Korea before American troops could arrive. He also knew that the Russians were on the verge of moving into Korea, or were already there. The nearest American troops to Korea were on Okinawa, 600 miles away. His problem, therefore, was to compose a surrender arrangement which, while acceptable to the Russians, would at the same time prevent them from seizing all of Korea. If they refused to confine their advance to north Korea, the United States would be unable to stop them. . . . He decided to use the 38^th parallel as a hypothetical line dividing the zones within which Japanese forces in Korea would surrender to appointed American and Russian authorities.

—Adapted from U.S. Army Lt. Paul C. McGrath’s account of Colonel Bonesteel’s decision in the 1940s

28 . What was the world history event occurring in the stated time frame that caused the Soviet Union to enter Korea?

  (A) The Crimean War

  (B) World War I

  (C) World War II

  (D) The Seven Years’ War

29 . Which best describes the relationship between the United States and the Soviets as depicted in the passage?

  (A) Uneasy allies

  (B) Comrades-in-arms

  (C) Mortal enemies

  (D) Distant strangers

30 . How did the events depicted here affect Koreans?

  (A) They became a part of Japan’s territory.

  (B) The Americans established freedom for all Koreans.

  (C) The Korean economy never recovered.

  (D) Korea remains divided into two nations near the 38th parallel.

31 . Which U.S. cold war policy, developed later, is consistent with the U.S. concern over limiting how much Korean territory the Soviet Union would occupy?

  (A) Détente

  (B) Mutual Assured Destruction

  (C) Dollar Diplomacy

  (D) Containment

Questions 32 to 34 refer to the passage below.

As for their men there is no sexual jealousy in them. And none of them derives his genealogy from his father but, on the contrary, from his maternal uncle. A man does not pass on inheritance except to the sons of his sister to the exclusion of his own sons. . . . They are Muslims keeping to the prayers, studying fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and learning the Qur’an by heart. With regard to their women, they are not modest in the presence of men; they do not veil themselves in spite of their perseverance in the prayers. He who wishes to marry among them can marry, but the women do not travel with the husband, and if one of them wanted to do that, she would be prevented by her family. The women there have friends and companions amongst men outside the prohibited degrees of marriage [i.e., other than brothers, fathers, etc.]. Likewise for the men, there are companions from amongst women outside the prohibited degrees. One of them would enter his house to find his wife with her companion and would not disapprove of that conduct.

—Adapted from an account by Ibn Battuta of his travels in Mali during the 1300s

32 . What evidence is there in the passage that the Malians take their Muslim faith seriously?

  (A) The genealogy is derived from the maternal side.

  (B) They study Islamic law faithfully.

  (C) The men do not yield to sexual jealousy.

  (D) They enjoy friendship with all, regardless of gender.

33 . What was the likely cause of women not wearing the veil?

  (A) They were probably rebelling against the oppression of women in Islam.

  (B) It was a continuation of a preexisting cultural pattern.

  (C) As sexual objects, they were prevented from veiling themselves.

  (D) The climate of Mali makes veiling women impractical.

34 . The most likely source of Islam in Mali came from

  (A) wandering Berber mystics.

  (B) conquering Mughal armies.

  (C) contact with Muslim trade caravans.

  (D) pilgrims to Islamic shrines in Ethiopia.

Questions 35 to 37 refer to the poem below.

The following poem refers to an incident in Sharpeville, South Africa, in 1960. To protest the requirement that they carry papers documenting their identity and residence, black South Africans gathered in front of police stations without their papers. Though other protests ended peacefully, in Sharpeville, police fired into the crowd.

What is important

about Sharpeville

is not that seventy died:

nor even that they were shot in the back

retreating, unarmed, defenceless

and certainty not

the heavy caliber slug

that tore through a mother’s back

and ripped through the child in her arms

killing it

Remember Sharpeville

bullet-in-the-back day

Because it epitomized oppression

and the nature of society

More clearly than anything else;

it was the classic event

Nowhere is racial dominance

more clearly defined

nowhere the will to oppress

more clearly demonstrated

What the world whispers

apartheid declares with snarling guns

the blood the rich lust after

South Africa spills dust

Remember Sharpeville

Remember bullet-in-the-back day

And remember the unquenchable will for freedom

Remember the dead

and be glad

—Dennis Brutus, 1973

35 . What does the poet mean by “what the world whispers”?

  (A) The world is too afraid of South Africa to oppose apartheid.

  (B) The world engages in subtler forms of discrimination.

  (C) The world condemns South Africa’s discrimination.

  (D) The world economy promotes South Africa’s discrimination.

36 . The discriminatory system referred to in the poem was known as

  (A) Jim Crow.

  (B) spheres of influence.

  (C) Boer division.

  (D) apartheid.

37 . What event symbolized the end of South Africa’s institutionalized discrimination?

  (A) The election of F. W. de Klerk

  (B) The election of Nelson Mandela

  (C) The bombing of Lesotho

  (D) The Boer War

Questions 38 to 40 refer to the chart below, which provides information regarding the First Fleet, the earliest British colonists in Australia.

38 . Based on the information provided, what was one of the primary purposes of the Australian colony?

  (A) A place in which to exile criminals

  (B) A place to create Pacific trading posts

  (C) A haven for persecuted religions

  (D) A base to establish military control of the Pacific

39 . Which entry date provides evidence that the colony was intended to be self-sustaining?

  (A) April 1788

  (B) January 1788

  (C) July 1788

  (D) March 1788

40 . What would a historian be most likely to use this information for?

  (A) Understanding the farming practices of early Australians

  (B) Determining the age and sex ratios of the early Australian colonists

  (C) Researching the hardships facing the early Australian colonists

  (D) Examining the medical practices of the early Australian colonists

Questions 41 to 43 refer to the map below.

Classical Era (600 BCE–600 CE)

41 . A historian would use the above map to illustrate which of the following?

  (A) Major trade routes in the classical era

  (B) The spread of communism from 1900 to today

  (C) One aspect of cultural diffusion

  (D) The monsoonal wind patterns of Asia

42 . Which religion’s spread followed the cultural diffusion pattern shown in the map?

  (A) Hinduism

  (B) Buddhism

  (B) Christianity

  (D) Islam

43 . How did this religion primarily spread?

  (A) With merchants

  (B) With monks

  (C) With military officers

  (D) With diplomats

Questions 44 to 46 refer to the passage below.

Although in Protestant Europe, [Peter the Great] was surrounded by evidence of the new civil and political rights of individual men embodied in constitutions, bills of rights and parliaments, he did not return to Russia determined to share power with his people. On the contrary, he returned not only determined to change his country but also convinced that if Russia was to be transformed, it was he who must provide both the direction and the motive force. He would try to lead; but where education and persuasion were not enough, he could drive—and if necessary flog—the backward nation forward.

—Robert K. Massie, Peter the Great: His Life and World

44 . Based on the above passage, what kinds of reforms did Peter the Great embrace?

  (A) Creation of an elected assembly

  (B) Declarations of human rights

  (C) Development of a constitutional monarchy

  (D) Reduction of aristocratic influence

45 . What term best describes Peter the Great’s ruling style as described in the passage?

  (A) Egalitarian

  (B) Absolutist

  (C) Republican

  (D) Theocratic

46 . When Peter the Great ruled Russia, he continued the practice of which of the following?

  (A) Decentralization of power

  (B) Isolationism

  (C) Serfdom

  (D) Reform

Questions 47 to 50 refer to the passage below, which is taken from testimony before Parliament.

Joshua Drake, called in; and Examined.

You say you would prefer moderate labour and lower wages; are you pretty comfortable upon your present wages?

—I have no wages, but two days a week at present; but when I am working at some jobs we can make a little, and at others we do very poorly.

When a child gets 3s. a week, does that go much towards its subsistence?

—No, it will not keep it as it should do.

Why do you allow your children to go to work at those places where they are ill-treated or over-worked?

—Necessity compels a man that has children to let them work.

Then you would not allow your children to go to those factories under the present system, if it was not from necessity?

—No.

—Testimony given before the Sadler Committee, 1831–32

47 . Which period in history is associated with the conditions described in the passage?

  (A) The Enlightenment

  (B) The Green Revolution

  (C) The Scientific Revolution

  (D) The Industrial Revolution

48 . According to the passage, why does the witness allow his children to work in a place where they will be ill-treated?

  (A) A factory owner is forcing him to do so.

  (B) He doesn’t earn enough on his own.

  (C) The children need discipline.

  (D) Their labor is only moderately difficult.

49 . Which style of government is most associated with limited regulations on business and working conditions similar to those described in the passage?

  (A) Laissez-faire

  (B) Totalitarian

  (C) Utilitarian

  (D) Corporatist

50 . Which type of organization was partially responsible for improving the hours, wages, and working conditions of workers in this era?

  (A) Guilds

  (B) Joint-stock companies

  (C) Labor unions

  (D) Zaibatsu groups

Questions 51 to 55 refer to the image below, which shows students taking the imperial examination in China c. 960–1279 CE

51 . From which social class were the students depicted in the painting most likely to be drawn?

  (A) Coastal merchants

  (B) Rural peasants

  (C) Conscripted military

  (D) Noble families

52 . What would be the most likely content of these exams?

  (A) Legal statutes

  (B) Engineering principles

  (C) Economic theory

  (D) Confucian essays

53 . Why were Japan’s early attempts at introducing the Chinese-style imperial exam largely unsuccessful?

  (A) The Japanese were unable to adapt to the Chinese style of examination.

  (B) Merchants resisted, fearing that efficient administrators would lead to increased taxes.

  (C) Japanese nobles feared that their power base would be weakened.

  (D) Christian missionaries discouraged the adoption of pagan practices.

54 . Which social phenomenon within China during the Song and Tang dynasties resulted from the imperial examination system?

  (A) Improved conditions for women

  (B) Development of state-run education

  (C) Integration of nomadic border tribes

  (D) Opportunity for social mobility

55 . Which Chinese emperor or ruler would be most likely to disapprove of candidates who were successful on an exam like this?

  (A) Mao Tse Tung

  (B) Emperor Han Wudi (Han dynasty)

  (C) Emperor TaiZong (Tang dynasty)

  (D) Deng Xiaoping

Go on to Part B

PART B: SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS

Recommended Time for Part B—50 minutes

Directions: The short-answer questions are divided into parts; some questions have parts A and B, and others have parts A, B, and C. Answer all parts of each of the questions. Each of the four questions requires you to respond with three answers, and each of these answers is worth one point. Therefore, each question is worth a total of three points. Note that short-answer questions are not essay questions—they do not require the development and support of a thesis statement.

Question 1 refers to the passage below.

The arbitrary and compulsory feudal marriage system, which is based on the superiority of man over woman and which ignores the children’s interests, shall be abolished. . . . The new democratic system, which is based on free choice of partners, on monogamy, on equal rights for both sexes, and on protection of the lawful interests of women and children, shall be put into effect. . . . Husband and wife are in duty bound to love, respect, assist, and look after each other, to live in harmony, to engage in production, to care for their children, and to strive jointly for the welfare of the family and for the building up of a new society.

—1950 Marriage Law, People’s Republic of China

1. Answer parts A and B.

  A . Discuss ONE major change in the status of men or women under the new marriage law.

  B . Identify TWO additional changes brought about by the Marriage Law.

Question 2 refers to the map below, which shows the progress of the Bubonic Plague, or the Black Death, during the 1340s.

2. Answer parts A and B.

  A . Discuss ONE way in which the plague spread from one region to another.

  B . Identify and discuss TWO effects of the plague in Europe.

3. Answer parts A and B.

  A . Identify and discuss TWO examples of popular culture whose influence has spread throughout the world during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

  B . Discuss ONE reaction that non-western societies have demonstrated when confronted with western popular culture.

4. Answer parts A and B.

  A . World War I used new military technology, methods, and strategies; identify and discuss TWO technologies, methods, or strategies that were innovative.

  B . Identify ONE social change in western societies that resulted from World War I.

STOP. End of Section I.

Section II

Time: 90 minutes

PART A: DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION (DBQ)

Recommended reading time for Part A—15 minutes
Recommended writing time for Part A—40 minutes

Directions: The question is based on the documents below. The documents have been edited and adapted for this exam.

• Read the question below carefully.

• Then read all the documents.

• Begin by grouping the documents into categories that reflect the documents’ points of view, theme, or intended audience.

• Create a thesis that addresses the entire question.

• Analyze the documents that support the thesis. You must use all (or all but one of) the documents.

• Give careful attention to the purpose, point of view, source, and historical context of each document.

• Do NOT list the documents or analyze them one at a time in your essay; they should be incorporated into your argument.

• Bring in historical examples that support your argument.

• Create a persuasive essay that upholds your thesis, connects your argument to historical context, and draws conclusions.

1. Using the following documents, and your knowledge of world history, discuss in what ways the modern (twentieth-century) Olympic games have become a platform for international political disputes and how this contradicts their original purpose.

Document 1

Document 2

Document 3

Document 4

Document 5

Document 6

Document 7

Go on to Part B

PART B: LONG-ESSAY QUESTION

Recommended Time for Part B—35 minutes

Directions: Answer ONE of the following questions.

1. Analyze the effects of physical environment (including geography and climate) on the longevity of the Chinese imperial system and culture.

2. Analyze the effects of physical environment (including geography and climate) on the longevity of the Egyptian dynastic system and culture.

STOP. End of Section II.

Answers and Explanations

---

Section I, Part A: Multiple-Choice

1 . D When Commodore Perry’s ship entered Japan’s harbor and forced the Japanese to open their ports to trade, it became clear to the Japanese that other nations had superior technology, and that this put Japan at a disadvantage, as Lord Ii described. Christian missionaries were expelled from Japan during the Tokugawa Shogunate, which led up to the time when the letter was written (A). The adoption of Chinese imperial customs occurred during the Japanese Heian period, during the 800s to 1100s, and well before the steamship was invented (B). Manchuria was annexed by Japan in the 1930s, well after the era of the letter (C).

2 . C In the 1970s, top Japanese leaders traveled to Europe and the United States to study western-style economic and political practices. Japan briefly implemented a civil service system like the Chinese during the Heian period, but it never fully developed (A). Japan had been inward-looking prior to this time. Although some Japanese argued for expansion, in the hopes that they would gain power, this did not occur until the later 1890s, and then did not occur in the Pacific (B). The turning inward happened prior to these events, during the Tokugawa Shogunate, and thus was not a response to them (D).

3 . A The Meiji Restoration refers to the period starting in 1868 with the restoration of imperial rule. It was characterized by strong centralized government, opening to the West, land reforms, and dismantling of the samurai classes. The Heian period lasted from the 800s to the 1100s and was characterized by strong Chinese influence (B). The Tokugawa Shogunate period lasted from the 1600s to 1868 and was characterized by a feudal system with a strong samurai class (C). The Jomon were a Japanese Neolithic culture.

4 . A The phrase “he enfolds the whole universe” indicates that Brahman is everywhere. There is no discussion of a specific location or place like Heaven (B). Because he is everywhere, Brahman is not found only in the hearts of the faithful, although he is found in the heart of the speaker (C). He is described as “loving to all,” and therefore is not vengeful (D).

5 . B The speaker states that he will go to Brahman after his death, indicating that he believes that there will be some form of afterlife. The speaker is probably referring to moksha , the transcendant state reached after being released from the cycle of reincarnation. There is no discussion of rituals or religious practices (A), not even proper deeds or speech (C). According to Hinduism, Hindus worship one being that has many aspects or forms, and thus they are not truly polytheistic (D).

6 . A Brahman is the supreme cosmic entity and also means the underlying reality of all things in the Hindu religion. In Buddhism, there is a cycle of rebirth until Enlightenment is achieved, but there is no concept of a supreme God (B). Shintoism, from Japan, focuses on nature deities (C). Zoroastrianism, an ancient Persian religion, has a supreme God, Ahura Mazda, and focuses on a cosmic struggle between the forces of good and evil (D).

7 . B The Columbian Exchange refers to the exchange of crops, animals, and disease between the “Old World,” meaning Europe, Africa, and Asia, and the “New World,” meaning the Americas. The Green Revolution refers to the use of agricultural science to create high-yield crops, fertilizers, and pesticides, starting in the mid-1960s (A). The triangular trade was the system of Atlantic trade networks around the 1500s (C). The Middle Passage was the part of the triangular trade network that shipped slaves from Africa to the Americas (D).

8 . A Increased diversity of crops meant a greater and more varied food supply, which in turn led to increased population in Europe. There is some speculation regarding whether any diseases entered Europe via the Columbian Exchange, but, in any event, such introductions were not sufficient to cause any significant decline in the European population (B). Immigration from the Americas to Europe was not a widespread phenomenon (C). Though Europeans brought crops to the Americas, it was not in quantities that would have caused a famine or a population decrease (D).

9 . C The encomienda system granted land and an allotment of Indians to a Spaniard. The Indians were required to work for free, and in exchange the Spaniard was supposed to protect them and provide for their Christian education. Slavery of Indians (though not of Africans) was officially banned by Spain in 1542 (A). Indentured servitude refers to the system of repaying one’s passage to the Americas by working for a specified period of time for free. It was primarily used by Europeans (B). The apprentice system is a system of learning a trade by working for a master craftsman for a specified period for low or no wages (D).

10 . A Human, not animal, labor was used to prepare the land and to plant and harvest crops. There is no evidence of irrigation in the image (B), and both men and women are at work (C). Animals were not generally used in farm work, not because they were “too valuable,” but because they fulfilled other tasks (D).

11 . B The Americas lacked horses and oxen, the animals that were most commonly used for agricultural work. And while the indigenous cultures were practiced in decorative metal work (using gold and silver especially), they did not use metals for weaponry. Religion and trade did not play substantial roles in economic development (A, D); warfare, however, did contribute to economic development (C), thanks to the resulting extensive system of tribute.

12 . C While the Aztecs used the wheel for non-essential items (toys, for example), they did not use it for transport vehicles. The Aztecs did have a system of writing (A), used metals for decorative work (B), and had significant overland trade networks (D).

13 . A There was little to no north-south traffic in the Americas, and certainly not among indigenous peoples between Mesoamerica and South America. The Andean and Mesoamerican cultures both had extensive roads and bridges (B) and strong religious cultures (C). The Maya had a system of writing (D); the Andean cultures did not.

14 . A Chinampas, or “floating gardens,” made use of the lakes and swamplands of Mesoamerica; terraces made agriculture possible in the mountainous Incan homeland. There was no overlap of agricultural techniques between the two cultures (B). Land ownership did not undergo reform (C), and coercive labor systems were not common to the two cultures (D).

15 . C The Han and Gupta were both classical empires (600 BCE to 600 CE). The Ottoman (A), Ming, Aztec (B), Tan, Qin, and Etruscan (D) were not classical empires.

16 . B The chaos and confusion following the fall of both the Roman and the Han empires interrupted overland trade routes; the imperial armies that had controlled nomadic raids fell with their empires or became involved in civil strife. Overland routes were supplanted by oceanic trade pathways. There was an increase rather than a decrease in religions of salvation (A). The role of the father (C) and women’s rights (D) saw no changes.

17 . C The Romans were famous for their public works—aqueducts, amphitheaters, baths, and especially roads—which brought the outlying parts of the empire into contact with the center. Diversity, so long as it didn’t disrupt the central government, was generally accommodated (A). States rarely supported (although they did tolerate) foreign religions (B). Merit was not a guiding principle for most imperial bureaucracies (D).

18 . B The Roman empire became too large, and the causes of destruction, including a loss of military discipline and control, led to loss of territory and, eventually, the fall of central power. Rulers became rich, which led to power rather than to their overthrow (A). Decay in Rome was not inherent (C). Conquest and prosperity are more frequently compatible than mutually exclusive (D).

19 . C Alliances, which were characteristic of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, constrained the allied countries to support one another and were one of the major causes of World War I. An attack on Serbia, for example, was considered an attack on Russia and its allies, France and Great Britain. Imperialism is an expansive policy of conquest and control (A). Nationalism refers to national identity (B). Militarism (D) refers to the buildup of armies and materiel.

20 . C The alliances that led to World War I were the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France, and Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy). Serbia was supported by Russia, which needed access to (winter) warm-water ports. As part of the Triple Entente, France supported Russia (B). World War I may well be known as a “politicians’ war,” but the cartoon does not show this (A). World War I is aptly named, as it involved non-European countries (D).

21 . C Bulgaria, Italy, and the United States were all engaged in World War I. Denmark (A), Switzerland (B), and Spain (D) were all neutral, although Switzerland did declare a “state of siege.”

22 . A The ziggurat was used by priests and other religious leaders to elevate and direct themselves toward the cosmos. Neither Central Asia (B) nor West Africa (C) created ziggurats. Egypt built pyramids, not ziggurats, to bury their royal dead.

23 . A Monumental architecture is characterized by sheer size (the arched doorways in the drawing give an idea of scale) and frequently serves a political, commemorative, or religious purpose. Ziggurats were not used as burial sites (B) or theaters (C). The term “hierarchical” generally refers to using contrasting sizes of humans to show their importance.

24 . C Mesoamerican pyramids were stepped and used for religious purposes and ceremonies, whereas Egyptian pyramids were cubed triangles and served as burial sites (A). Chinese pagodas (B) and the Parthenon (D) were not even vaguely pyramidal.

25 . C Theodore Roosevelt advocated intervention in Latin America when U.S. interests were at stake. The United States supported Panama’s independence from Colombia in 1903 because Colombia did not support the Panama Canal. The Zimmerman Telegram was sent to Mexico by Germany in 1917 (A), the Cuban embargo took place in 1962 (B), and the Haitian Revolution began in 1791 (D). They all occurred either substantially earlier than the writing of the poem, or after. In addition, Haiti was a French colony and would not have been considered part of Latin America.

26 . D The phrase indicates that Latin America has had both poets and civilizations that used “the stars” in its history. Answers including only poetry (A) or only science (B) are therefore insufficient. There is nothing in the passage to suggest prophecy (C).

27 . B The theme is that Latin America has survived many invaders and will continue to survive, as indicated by references to Columbus, Catholics, and Spain, and the use of phrases like “it lives” and “Viva Spanish America!” The only references to violence are in connection with the United States’ warlike actions and are critical of the violence (A). The poem refers to the rich culture of Latin America in the present tense: “it lives” (C). The poet is critical of the U.S. focus on industry and progress (“You think progress is eruption. No.”) (D).

28 . C The introduction states that the events occurred in the 1940s, which was during the World War II era. The Crimean War occurred between 1853 and 1856, and therefore is the wrong era (B). World War I occurred between 1914 and 1918, which is also the wrong era (B). The Seven Years’ War occurred in Europe, primarily between 1755 and 1763. It is therefore from the wrong era, and also occurred in a different location.

29 . A The United States was allied with the Soviet Union primarily because the Soviet Union had been invaded by Germany. There was some distrust, though, as the Soviets had earlier signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. The Soviets also felt that the United States, by refusing to open an Eastern Front to take the pressure off Soviet troops, had been lukewarm in its support. That distrust meant that the two were not exactly comrades or friends (B). They also were not enemies, because the United States was looking for a solution that was acceptable to the Soviets (C). That the Soviets’ views were considered means that they were not strangers (D).

30 . D Korea is currently separated into a Communist dictatorship in the north and a democratic, capitalist regime in the south. The Japanese have no authority over or ownership of Korea (A). The Americans established a democratic regime in the south, but North Korea limits the individual liberties of its citizens (B). Though North Korea has suffered economic hardship in the late twentieth century, South Korea has enjoyed rapid economic growth over the same period (C).

31 . D Containment refers to the policy of limiting the spread of communism by limiting the amount of territory the Communist powers occupied. Détente refers to a thawing of relations, which is incorrect given the distrust of the Soviets implied in the passage (A). Mutual Assured Destruction refers to the idea that both the Soviets and the United States would be deterred from using nuclear weapons by the fact that they would both be destroyed if they did so. The passage predates Soviet nuclear capabilities, and is therefore incorrect (B). Dollar Diplomacy emphasized the U.S. use of economic influence to achieve political ends in Latin America (C).

32 . B The people of Mali study the fiqh, which is part of Muslims’ religious law. Ibn Batutta expresses surprise that the genealogy is derived from the maternal side, indicating that this is not a common Muslim practice (A). Although he does not explicitly state that the men do not yield to sexual jealousy, it can be inferred from the fact that women had male friends and companions (C). Likewise, he is surprised at the casual acceptance of such interactions between unrelated members of opposite sexes (D).

33 . B Women wearing the veil is a cultural practice found in Southwest Asia (the Middle East) that predated the founding of Islam. Women of Africa did not have that custom, and so were less likely to adopt it as part of Islamic practice. Muslim women do not always perceive the veil to be a means of oppression, not to mention the fact that the passage did not indicate that the Muslim women of Mali were oppressed (A). That women could have male friends indicates that they were not merely sexual objects (C). The climate of Mali would be similar to that of Southwest Asia, where wearing the veil was a common practice (D).

34 . C Mali was near the trans-Saharan trade routes dominated by Muslim merchants in the 1300s. Those merchants frequently exposed local African merchants to Islam. Berbers are North African tribes, but they are not associated with any religious or mystical movement (A). The Mughal empire lasted from the mid-1500s to the mid-1800s, and so is out of period. The Mughals also were located in India and never entered Africa (B). Ethiopia was one of the earliest Christian nations in Africa, and therefore was unlikely to have many Islamic shrines (D).

35 . B By “whispering” sentiments similar to those that apartheid “declares,” the world also engages in discrimination, just in a less noticeable manner. There is no discussion of the world’s fear of South Africa (A), nor of the world’s condemnation of the policy of apartheid (B). Although “oppression” is the nature of the society, there is no discussion of its being caused by the world economy (D).

36 . D Apartheid was the policy of legal discrimination against black South Africans from 1948 to 1994. Jim Crow refers to legal segregation in the United States South from Reconstruction after the Civil War until the 1960s (A). Spheres of influence refers to the system during the late 1800s in which European powers gained trading privileges within their own region, or “sphere,” in China (B). Boer is a Dutch and Afrikaans term for farmer and is associated with South Africa, but “Boer division” is not an official term (C).

37 . B Nelson Mandela was an anti-apartheid activist and head of the African National Congress Party. He was the first black president of South Africa, elected in 1994 after years of imprisonment for his anti-apartheid activities. Even though F. W. de Klerk worked to repeal apartheid laws after his election as South Africa’s president in 1989, as he was a white politician, his presidency didn’t symbolize the end of apartheid (A). There was no major bombing of Lesotho (C). The Boer War was fought by the British and the Boers (Dutch descendants) for control of South Africa at the end of the 1800s, and is therefore out of the time period.

38 . A The information states that the settlers included marines, marine wives, and both male and female convicts. The presence of the convicts shows that Australia was intended to be a penal colony, to house convicted criminals. There is no evidence of any intention to trade or to build a trading post (B). There is no discussion of religion (C), nor of the weapons or arms that would be needed for military bases (D).

39 . B Convicts were given the afternoons to tend their own gardens, which implies that they were hoping to grow their own food eventually. April’s entry discusses illness (scurvy) (A); July’s entry discusses medical shortages and the age of some convicts (C); and March’s entry discusses food shortages (D).

40 . C The passage gives some indication concerning the hardships faced by the early Australian colonists, including famine, disease, and shortages of important supplies. There is no detailed discussion of the gardening methods used (A). Although there are mentions of age and sex, one cannot determine the ratios because no exact numbers are provided (B). Likewise, there is no information regarding any specific medical practices and procedures beyond a “salt diet,” which could apply to all colonists (D).

41 . C The spread of religion is one of the best-known examples of cultural diffusion, and the map shows the spread of Buddhism. Trade routes (e.g., the Silk Roads) in the classical era (A, D) originated in China and continued to the Mediterranean. Communism (B) is primarily a twentieth-century phenomenon that did not originate in India. The paths shown have nothing to do with weather (D).

42 . B Buddhism originated in India, although it eventually became a minority religion there and spread to other countries, incorporating or adapting to local customs and needs. Hinduism (A), Christianity (C), and Islam (D) did not begin in India.

43 . B Monks served as the leaders and missionaries for Buddhism. They gave up earthly goods in order to guide lay believers. Although merchants (A), military officers (C), and diplomats (D) all helped to transport beliefs, they did not dedicate their lives to doing so.

44 . C Peter the Great brought a great many ideas back from his travels to the West, among them those dealing with individual rights and parliamentary government; but he retained control, instituting a sort of constitutional monarchy. He did not create an elected assembly (A), make declarations of guaranteed human rights (B), or reduce aristocratic influence to any great degree (D).

45 . B By retaining control and power, Peter the Great was more absolutist than he was egalitarian (A), republican (C), or theocratic (D).

46 . C Peter the Great did not free the serfs; it took the Industrial Revolution in Russia to make that feasible. He did nothing to decentralize power—in fact, he consolidated it (A). He worked hard to reverse the isolationism (B) that had left Russia on the margins of modernization. He did not continue reform, but he initiated it in many instances (D).

47 . D The Industrial Revolution was characterized by a lack of regulation, leading to poor working conditions, long hours, and low wages, including for children. The Enlightenment was primarily a philosophical movement occurring in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (A). The Green Revolution used scientific methods to increase crop yields. It is also a twentieth-century phenomenon and is therefore out of the era (B). The Scientific Revolution predates this, having occurred around the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, and refers to the prolific scientific discoveries in fields like physics, astronomy, and anatomy. (C)

48 . B The witness states that he has work only about 2 days each week, and that he needs to let his children work (necessity compels him). There is no owner forcing him. The phrase “necessity compels a man” refers to his own need for his children to work (A). There is no indication that the children need discipline (C). The phrase “moderate labour” does appear, but the speaker is saying that he would prefer reasonable hours, even if he earns less (D).

49 . A Laissez-faire (“leave it alone”) is the principle that governments should not interfere in or regulate industries, businesses, or markets. Totalitarian governments typically have total control over their economies, making “A” the better answer (B). Utilitarian philosophers advocate policies that create the greatest amount of happiness for the largest number of people. It is not a style of government per se, nor would it be consistent with systems that used child labor (C). Corporatists include interest groups (like labor and industry) in the government, and therefore provide more government involvement in the economy than laissez-faire systems (D).

50 . C Labor unions, whose workers are organized and act collectively, fought for better wages, hours, and working conditions in the 1800s and 1900s. Guilds were medieval organizations and therefore are out of the time period (A). Joint-stock companies allowed investors to purchase shares in a business. They did not advocate for workers (B). Zaibatsu groups are Japanese industrial conglomerates that controlled parts of Japan’s economy in the late 1800s and early 1900s. This answer in incorrect because they did not support improved conditions for workers and because it relates to a different region (D).

51 . D Most of the people taking the exams came from the Chinese nobility. Even though the civil service exam offered the possibility of social mobility for the lower classes, the reality was that, since the exams were so difficult and there was no public education, few peasants could afford to devote that amount of time to studying (B). Conscripted military would also have been unable to take the time to study for the exam (C). Coastal merchants would not have been a large enough group to make an impact (A).

52 . D The civil service exam was created during the Han dynasty to provide a professional bureaucracy. It was based on Confucian essays, literature, and poetry. It did not cover legal statutes (A) or engineering principles (B). It also would not have covered economic theory, especially as the Chinese tended to look down on trade and merchants (C).

53 . C Even though the civil service exams did not result in large degrees of social mobility, the Japanese nobles and Buddhist monks balked at the prospect of diluting their power. The Japanese had adopted Chinese writing and other elements of the imperial court system, so there is no reason to think that they would not have been able to adapt to that style of exam (A). Japanese merchants at this time weren’t significant enough to affect the decision (B), and Christian missionaries did not have enough influence to affect such decisions (D).

54 . D Although most of the candidates were drawn from the upper classes, the civil service exam did offer an opportunity for a few bright candidates from rural villages. Conditions for women were unchanged, as women could not take the exam (A). Candidates had to pay for their studies themselves (B). The imperial exam was unrelated to nomadic border tribes (C).

55 . A Mao Tse Tung was opposed to intellectuals, and sought to reeducate them during the Cultural Revolution. Both the Han dynasty and the Tang dynasty used and supported the imperial exam, so they would have approved of successful candidates (B, C). Deng Xiaoping is the twentieth-century Chinese leader who modernized China, improving education and opening markets. Although he might not have supported the Confucian element, the fact that he supported education means that this is not the best response (D).

Section I, Part B: Short-Answer Questions

1A . You should mention ONE of the following in your answer: men are no longer considered superior to women; women will enjoy equal rights in the marriage; men and women can now choose the person they want to marry; or men and women are constrained to be monogamous.

1B . The TWO additional changes can include any of the answers from 1A, so long as you didn’t use them to answer 1A. You can also mention the care of children or the consideration of marriage as a way to contribute to the societal good.

2A . As the map shows, the plague spread both by land and by sea. Drawing on your knowledge of world history, you might discuss merchants or crusaders as being responsible for this spread of the disease.

2B . TWO effects of the plague in Europe can include, for example, a death blow to the feudal class system caused by the loss of serf labor and the beginning of a wage labor system; a drastic decline in population; increased persecution of Jews and alleged witches, since they were considered to have been responsible for the plague; or the production of literary works (e.g., Boccaccio’s Decameron ).

3A . You may mention various styles of popular music—rock ‘n’ roll, heavy metal, or reggae, for example. Movies have become globally popular, from Italian neorealism to Hollywood to Bollywood, to name just a few forms. Food has gone global, including fast food, like McDonald’s. Jeans, jazz, and sports have all become global.

3B . While many non-westerners admire and, to some degree, emulate American cultural icons, many others resent the diffusion of American culture. As a result, citizens of non-western cultures often experience a resurrection of traditional practices in their countries. Some have gone so far as to ban the use of western language or terminology and replaced it with native terms.

4A . You have many choices here. TWO of the following should come to mind immediately: use of tanks; use of airplanes, though generally only for reconnaissance; use of chemical weapons (mustard gas); water-cooled machine guns; flame throwers; trench warfare.

4B . Of the social changes resulting from World War I, a shortage of young men led to greater work opportunities for women. There was an erosion of class distinctions, a weakening of imperial ties, and suffrage for women.

Section II, Part A: Document-Based Question

This question has two parts: in reverse order, you must decide the original purpose of the Olympic games, and the purpose of the modern games as well; then you must discuss how the modern games have deviated from that original purpose and become, frequently, political. You must sustain a thesis that takes both parts of the question into consideration. For example, you could say that the original purpose of the games was to use sport to establish or maintain peace among different peoples (Documents 1 and 2), but that with globalization, or with modern interweavings of different nations and different aspects of life, politics have crept into sports. You may decide that this is inevitable. Or you may take to heart the idea of establishing a permanent venue for the games that asks participants to check their politics at the gate (Document 7).

A good response will draw on six or seven (that is, all or all but one of the) documents to explain how the nature of the modern Olympic games has changed—not always, but frequently enough to be noteworthy. You should begin by analyzing the documents. A definition of just what the modern Olympic games represented, or their overall goal, would be to promote peace and understanding among nations (Documents 2 and 5). This is based on the Classical era’s idea that the games should be all-inclusive (Document 1).

You should incorporate further analysis of the documents, perhaps by dividing them into those that contain evidence in support of the idea of using the games as a political soapbox (Documents 3, 4, and 5) and those that present an opposing point of view (Documents 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7). There will be an obvious overlapping of documents, since many of them present both perspectives. Simply listing the characteristics of individual documents, however, does not answer the question or sustain your thesis.

Having considered the differing points of view, your task is to connect them, within a historical context, in order to show that the Olympics were never intended to be political, and that today, in an effort to remove politics from the Olympic arena, the establishment of a permanent venue has been suggested (Document 7).

There are various conclusions that can be drawn here. You may feel that globalization has made the political nature of any international event inevitable. On the other hand, you may conclude that athletes should take the moral high road and simply carry out and show off their athletic talents (Document 6). In other words, you may show that while political gamesmanship contradicts the original intent of the Olympic games, it is an unavoidable by-product of a world in which not only are nations inextricably intertwined (economically, politically, culturally), but so are the things—sports, religion, entertainment, business—that make up any given culture.

Section II, Part B: Long-Essay Question

In a strong response, you may begin by explaining what “longevity” means in the context of the question. The Chinese imperial system lasted from approximately 1500 BCE to 1912 CE, or almost 3,500 years. Egypt’s dynastic system lasted from approximately 3100 BCE until 30 BCE, or until the death of Cleopatra. (For purposes of comparison, the Western Roman Empire lasted about 500 years, and the Spanish Empire lasted about 300 years.)

In this essay, you can make the case either for or against the causal effects of physical environment on the longevity of either the Chinese or the Egyptian imperial system. Both China and Egypt controlled large land masses. In a sense, they had only one frontier to defend from invaders. The Chinese fortified their frontier with the Great Wall. Egypt enjoyed natural barriers: water on two sides, and desert on two sides. In both cases, their geography contributed to the longevity of the empire as well as to a sense of national identity. Geographic barriers kept invaders out and, to a degree, kept inhabitants in.

China’s climate is varied simply because the country covers a great deal of territory. Arable land, however, has always been relatively restricted. This geographic feature made China more inclined to cultivate trade, and thus the Silk Roads developed. Egypt has a temperate climate and a dependable river, the Nile. “Dependable” means that the Nile has followed a predictable cycle of flooding, depositing fertile soil (silt) along its banks for use in planting and harvesting. This environmental feature enabled the Egyptians to raise three crops a year.

Culturally, both China and Egypt believed that their leaders were semidivine and that continued environmental benevolence depended on maintaining harmony between the rulers of the cosmos and the terrestrial rulers. Thus, natural or environmental disasters—floods or droughts, for example—could prompt changes in rulers or even whole dynasties, although the systems remained intact.

The development of technology would make the role of the physical environment much less important. At this point, you could argue that geography and climate (including natural resources), while important to the way in which a society develops or the directions that it takes, are not THE determining factor in longevity. In early times, it was a response to the environment that partially determined the success or failure of an empire; after the Industrial Revolution, however, society could control the physical environment. In any case, in modern times, empires are no longer the dominant model of governing.

Scoring: How Did I Do?

As you evaluate how you did on the practice exam, you need to keep several things in mind.

First, look again at the chart from the first chapter of the book. This tells you how much of your score will be determined by each part of the test. The multiple-choice counts the most, but no one part of the exam will determine your final grade. The scoring chart below reflects the same percentages shown here.

An overall score of 3 (out of 5) is considered passing. However, each college or university has different policies as to the score needed and the amount of credit offered. Check the schools you’re considering to determine the score you’ll need and the credit hours awarded. You can find all this information at https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/creditandplacement/search-credit-policies?affiliateId=rdr&bannerId=apcreditpolicy .

To use the scoring chart below, you’ll have to grade your own answers for the short-answer questions, the document-based question, and the long essay. Look at the explanations and evaluate how your answers measure up. Determine the points you should probably receive for each question based on the total points possible shown on the worksheet below.

This worksheet uses a different point system from the actual test, but the result is similar. In the end, you’ll have an idea of how you performed on the practice test on the same 1–5 scale used on the actual test. The apcentral.collegeboard.com website has specific information about rubrics for the questions. Your teacher should also have this information.

Finally, keep in mind that the conversion chart below will provide only an approximation of your score. In fact, the actual conversion chart that the College Board uses varies a little each year and is determined only after the test is scored.

Scoring Worksheet

Section I, Part A Multiple Choice

Section I, Part B Short Answer

Section II, Part A Document-Based Question

Section II, Part B Long Essay

Approximate conversion from raw score to AP score: