Essential Writing Skills for College and Beyond (2014)

Part III. POLISHING YOUR ESSAY

Chapter 8. Revising and Editing Your Essay

All successful writers must learn to edit and revise their work. However, a fine line exists between polishing a paper and editing it to death. No essay is perfect, but with some subtle editing and revising tips, the revision process will help you vastly improve the quality of your work—and your scores.

Typically the mistake beginning writers make is that they attempt to perform both the revision and editing processes on their paper simultaneously. Most students who attempt to do both at the same time become frustrated and overwhelmed by the number of issues they must fix. They either give up entirely, or they quickly fix a few issues and leave the rest, hoping the instructor won’t notice. Neither strategy is a good one. It’s best to treat revising and editing as two distinct and separate processes.

Separating the editing and revising processes will help reduce your stress while writing and improve the quality of your work. At this point, you may be asking what, exactly, is the difference between revising and editing?

REVISING: Making substantial, in-depth changes to the essay’s ideas, structure, or purpose. This step may include:

· Adding an entire new paragraph

· Removing weak paragraphs

· Inserting opposing viewpoints and evidence to point out their flaws

· Introducing new research

EDITING: Fixing surface errors in organization, grammar, spelling, and punctuation. This step may include:

· Deleting words or sentences to fix awkward or vague phrasing

· Altering the order of paragraphs

· Changing or adding formats or fonts

· Correcting spelling or citations

BEYOND THE CLASSROOM

Most job seekers immediately understand the value of revising their résumé, cover letter, and any other documents needed to secure a great new position. However, even after you attain the job you worked so hard to acquire, you will want to keep it, and revising your work is critical to doing so.

You might be surprised to learn how many employees send out e-mails to their colleagues or clients without proper punctuation, capitalization, and word choice. Although occasional typos and grammar errors do occur, if your written work is rife with errors and smacks of lazy revision skills, your chances of getting a promotion will be slim to none.

Employers value employees who communicate well and essentially make them and the company or organization look good. Most communication in the workplace is written—such as e-mails, webinars, memos, press releases, briefs, project proposals, and policy statements. Your future job will likely require you to create and/or respond to these types of documents regularly, and your ability to do so may mean the difference between receiving a promotion or not. If you invest in your writing abilities now, you’ll be able to easily tackle this type of work later, and you’ll realize the investment you made in your writing skills has paid off beyond the college classroom.

REVISING STRATEGIES

Most writers begin with the revising process since it is more extensive and involved. To get the most out of revision, consider using one or several of these strategies:

1. PLAY DEVIL’S ADVOCATE. Imagine a hostile reader who wishes to discredit all of your points and examples.

• Identify potential points of attack. Determine how to strengthen these areas. Then, ask yourself: Why did you include them at all? How do your examples work to defend and explain your claims? Record your answers to these questions, and save them for the revision process. (You can either do this exercise aloud and then write down your responses or complete it entirely in writing. Try both methods, and see which you prefer.)

• Consider opposing viewpoints. For example, if you argue for raising the federal minimum wage for tipped employees in your essay, then you should spend ample time brainstorming reasons against raising it. (If you cannot think of any reasons yourself, research what arguments opponents have advanced.) Once you have a handle on the key opposing arguments, you can better address why you feel these arguments lack logic or value and can then point out these flaws in your work.

2. CONSIDER YOUR AUDIENCE. An eloquent, thorough argument unfortunately does not guarantee audience persuasion. To ensure you reach and convince your audience, ask yourself, “Who will read my work?” For most collegiate essays, the audience is the professor; however, also consider the larger audience for the topic. If you write about legalization of abortion, for example, to whom would you address this essay? Doctors? State agencies? Patients? Parents of pregnant teenagers? All voters? If the assignment is not this specific, request permission to write for a specific audience; having a defined audience allows you (as a writer) to better focus your points and examples and also helps you better control the topic.

3. DISCUSS YOUR IDEAS WITH OTHERS. Ask a friend, family member, or instructor to listen to your ideas, and encourage them to ask you as many questions as possible about the topic—the more difficult and probing, the better. The more you explain your ideas to others and are forced to answer questions and defend your stances, the better your command of the topic’s key talking points will become—and the more sophisticated your thoughts on them will be.

This sample revision process, completed by Russell as he worked on his minimum-wage essay, employs part of revision strategy #1 (considering opposing viewpoints) to strengthen his argument. His process, outlined below, represents only a sample of one way to revise an essay. Every writer’s process varies, so feel free to apply the strategies as best suits your process.

1. OPPONENTS SAY:

Waiting on tables, making drinks, and cooking food are not highly skilled jobs. If these people want to make lots of money, then they should go to college and learn a “real” skill. They can leave anytime they want. If they want to make more money, they should go somewhere else and do something else.

MY REBUTTAL:

First, asking for a livable wage that amounts to just half of the federal minimum isn’t asking for “lots of money”; it’s asking for just that: a livable wage that lets these workers have food, shelter, transportation, and access to education. It also helps them get out and spend so the economy stays strong. Second, how are they supposed to go out and learn these so-called “real” skills if they have to work sixty hours a week just to pay the rent? Go to college? Are you kidding? Have opponents of the wage increase actually looked at tuition prices, especially for the top colleges that teach “real” skills that lead to “lots of money”? Even public colleges are raising tuition, let alone the Ivy League ones. Third, these workers cannot just leave “anytime they want.” As Allegretto and Filio (2011) show, the economy lost more than 5 million jobs, but the number of tipped workers grew by about 140,000 and the number of waiters grew by about 68,000. Since 2000, the number of tipped workers has increased 15.5 percent and the number of waiters increased 7.5 percent—increases which far exceeded the 1.8 percent growth in the overall workforce. “Since 2000, the number of tipped employee jobs has grown.” This all means that the number of high-paying jobs is decreasing and the number of low-paying jobs like waiting tables is increasing.

2. OPPONENTS SAY:

Raising the minimum wage will hurt the tipped employees and the overall economy because it will increase unemployment in the tipped positions. Restaurants don’t want to pay workers more, so they’ll just lay them off, which will actually hurt the very workers the increase is designed to help.

MY REBUTTAL:

The opponents might have a point here. I guess I need to see if I can find some economists or other experts who say that the opposite is true. Wouldn’t giving these workers more money actually help the economy because they’d have more money to spend? The more money they have, the more they have to spend, which creates more jobs and helps other people in businesses and other professions, right?

In completing this strategy, Russell realized he did not have a clear rebuttal for his second opposition statement concerning the connection between minimum-wage rates and unemployment. However, this realization led him to find one, which, in turn, led to a stronger, more convincing argument in his final draft.

After considering opposing viewpoints, Russell decided to change his paragraph’s format. In the original, he states his own argument and then poses a question in an attempt to discredit opposing voices. However, in his revision paragraph he employs a much more sophisticated strategy: Instead of merely posing the question, he answers it. This strategy is much more effective because it allows him to tell readers why the opposing view is invalid rather than assuming they know or agree with him.

RUSSELL’S ORIGINAL PARAGRAPH:

Increasing the federal minimum wage for tipped employees will help stimulate our economy; increased wages will mean increased spending and circulation of money, which leads to economic growth. According to Sylvia Allegretto and Kai Filio (2011) of The Economic Policy Institute, we have roughly two million tipped restaurant employees in the United States (p. 6). Giving two million people more money to spend each month would make a huge difference in our economy. Raising their wage to be half the federal minimum wage (currently set at $7.25/hour) would mean raising it to just $3.63 per hour. This does not sound like much of an increase, but it would give workers an extra $1.50 to spend for every hour they work. Multiply this number times the number of hours every tipped employee works times every tipped employee in the entire country, and we can see how exponentially we could increase circulation of money in our economy. For example, if all tipped employees only worked 20 hours per week for 50 weeks per year, they would have an additional $1,500 to spend each year. Multiply this $1,500 by the estimated two million tipped restaurant employees, and we would see an extra $3,000,000,000 (three billion dollars) pumped into our economy each year. How could anyone argue that raising the minimum wage is anything but wise?

Notice that in his revision, Russell avoids insults and accusations; he simply presents the opposing view and explains why, based on his research, he sees it as invalid.

Although opponents to raising the federal tipped employee minimum wage warn that a wage increase will actually lead to greater unemployment and thus a damaged economy, in fact, increasing the federal minimum wage for tipped employees will help stimulate our economy. Increased wages will mean increased spending and circulation of money, which leads to economic growth. Walter John Wessels (1997) argues that an increase in the minimum wage necessarily means a decrease in restaurant jobs. However, many other economists disagree with him. For example, Madeline Zavodny of the Federal Reserve Bank states, “Employment at specific restaurants does not fall when the minimum wage increases” (p. 96), and Economists David Cooper and Doug Hall (2013) find that raising the minimum wage would “provide a modest stimulus to the entire economy, as increased wages would lead to increased consumer spending, which would contribute to GDP growth and modest employment gains (p. 2). It’s hard to ignore this overwhelming evidence, especially when considering that we have roughly two million tipped restaurant employees in the United States (p. 6). Giving two million people more money to spend each month would make a huge difference in our economy. Raising their wage to be half the federal minimum wage (currently set at $7.25/hour) would mean raising it to just $3.63 per hour. This does not sound like much of an increase, but it would give workers an extra $1.50 to spend for every hour they work. Multiply this number times the number of hours every tipped employee works times every tipped employee in the entire country, and we can see how exponentially we could increase circulation of money in our economy. For example, if all tipped employees only worked 20 hours per week for 50 weeks per year, they would have an additional $1,500 to spend each year. This increase translates into an extra $3,000,000,000 (three billion dollars) pumped into our economy each year.

CONTROLLING THE CRITIC

With all this talk of revising, many students often get nervous. It is usually at this point in the writing process that the voice of The Critic becomes unbearable. Some students are not sure when to stop revising, and some inner critics are so brutal in their commentary that students worry how they can listen to The Critic without feeling beat up and frustrated afterward.

The Critic typically has much to say about our work, but how can we know which of these scathing criticisms we should accept and fix and which we should ignore or alter? Listen only to constructive, helpful criticism—not mean-spirited, judgmental criticism.

Helpful criticism is not necessarily always positive, but it is always constructive, meaning that it gives the writer direction. It indicates how she can go about fixing the problem(s) identified. Judgmental criticism, on the other hand, shuts down conversation and merely insults the writer. It rarely offers any direction for future composition.

Consider the following issue Jenny experienced while writing a comparison/contrast analysis essay on two male characters, Peter Griffin from Family Guy and Homer Simpson from The Simpsons. She wrote the following ideas on the topic.

Peter and Homer are a lot alike, but they are also different. It seems like Homer is like a good guy on the inside and means well even though he definitely does stupid things. Peter is an idiot, too, but he is more of a mean idiot. He doesn’t seem to care about anyone but himself. Even his kids are secondary. Both guys have the whole house and three kids plus two cars and all that. But when you watch the show, you realize Homer actually cares about his family but Peter doesn’t. What is this saying to viewers? Are they making fun of Homer and Peter, or are they saying this is good?

Her inner Critic then blasted the work with the following criticisms.

“This is so lame. What is this? I haven’t even said anything.”

“I’m a terrible writer. I hate writing. I never know what to say. I don’t know how to make this sound right. I’m just not good at English.”

Clearly, Jenny’s inner Critic is busily ripping her work, and her self-esteem, to shreds. Should she listen? Did The Critic offer her helpful, constructive direction with which she could improve her writing?

This Critic’s judgment is destructive, not constructive. Jenny understandably felt frustrated and ready to quit. However, once she probed further into the criticism—while avoiding the judgment statements—she realized how to fix the issues she saw in her writing. In the example below, Jenny tackled each of The Critic’s judgments and replaced it with a constructive criticism.

JUDGMENT: “This is so lame.”

HOW TO FIX IT: Remove the judgmental term lame, and probe deeper to find the nature of the problem.

CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM: What exactly is the problem with the information? Is it too vague? If so, which specific elements or details in the paragraph are unclear?

JUDGMENT: “What is this? I haven’t even said anything.”

HOW TO FIX IT: Specify these questions to elicit definitive answers.

CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM: What is “what”? Define “this.” Do you mean that the point of the paragraph is unclear? What is it you want to say, exactly?

JUDGMENT: “I’m a terrible writer. I hate writing. I never know what to say. I don’t know how to make this sound right. I’m just not good at English.”

HOW TO FIX IT: Remove the judgment about whether you are a “good” writer, and throw out the verdict of your perceived abilities in English. Don’t turn one perceived problem with one paragraph on one paper in one class into an overall indication of your abilities in an entire discipline.

CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM: What exactly is “terrible” about the paragraph? Is the information inaccurate? Does it need more supporting evidence? What do you mean by “sound right”? Is the writing grammatically incorrect, or do you mean the tone needs to be more formal?

Struggling with writing is not an indication of lack of talent or ability; it just goes with the territory of creating. All writers and artists struggle, and no matter how great a writer you become, you will struggle at times. Use these struggles to learn more about your strengths and weaknesses so you can continuously improve.

EDITING

Use the following strategies to help edit your work. Remember, editing is a surface-level task, which means you will focus on word choice, grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

· READ YOUR WORK ALOUD. The sound of your ideas and language (whether good or not) will come across, and any awkward sentences will be easy to fix once you hear them. Ensure your tone and word choice are formal enough for an academic audience. (Further information on word choice can be found later in this chapter).

· READ THE ESSAY BACKWARDS. Check your essay for errors by combing through it from end to beginning; start at the end and read the last sentence, then the penultimate sentence, and so on as you move toward the first word. Don’t read for content; search only for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Reading backwards allows you to look at your paper as simply a collection of sentences so you can avoid getting caught up in the ideas or arguments presented.

· GET ANOTHER PAIR OF EYES ON THE PAPER. Take advantage of your college’s Writing Center or Learning Lab, both of which offer free writing assistance to registered students, or ask a trusted, intelligent friend or family member to look it over for you.

· TAKE BREAKS. Our minds grow tired of working on the same task for long periods of time. So write for a while, but don’t be afraid to take breaks. Return to the paper when your mind has had a chance to process and rest. Most writing instructors recommend writing an essay over a period of three to four days. (If the essay is more than ten pages long, you will likely need four to five days.)

· READ THE ESSAY BOTH ON THE SCREEN AND IN PRINT. Our eyes can often play tricks on us when we read. Some people can catch errors on a screen that they would miss in print and vice versa, so before you turn in the final draft, print it and read the hard copy. Also read it on the computer screen. Using both methods will ensure the best results.

· GO TO OFFICE HOURS. Office hours give you the opportunity to seek help from the very person who will grade your essay: your instructor. So scope out the instructor’s office, and stop by with your paper in tow. Chances are you’ll be glad you did; most instructors see office visits as a compliment, and they are happy to help their students succeed. Even if the visit doesn’t prove as helpful as you hoped, what have you lost? Fifteen minutes? It’s common for a student to go over her essay with her instructor and raise her essay score by an entire letter grade. Gambling fifteen minutes to potentially gain such a vast improvement in your grade is definitely a low-risk investment.

See the pages that follow for examples of editing for specific errors (such as word choice, commas, semicolons, apostrophes, etc.).

WORD CHOICE

The use of language within any written work largely determines how readers perceive both it and its writer. As arguably the greatest writer of the English language, William Shakespeare achieved unsurpassed brilliance in language. His works remain known, read, and celebrated all over the world—and scholars often refer both to his work and to him as preeminent.

How did Shakespeare achieve such an impressive feat with his writing? Different scholars attribute his successes differently, but his mastery of language is irrefutable and clearly stands at the center of his eminent success.

Just as sculptors use clay, wax, metal, and other materials to bring their visions to life for viewers, writers use words to bring their ideas and analyses to life for readers.

Fear not; professors certainly don’t expect their students to turn in masterpieces that rival the genius of Shakespeare! However, they do expect their students to consider word choice in their essays and to effectively convey meaning through the phrasing they select.

Consider the examples below that theoretically convey similar meanings, and decide which you feel speaks to the audience most effectively.

EXAMPLE 1:

A. Cowards end up feeling really depressed because every time they have the chance to do something great, they don’t do it, so they feel so bad that it’s almost like they die a little every time they don’t live up to their potential. It’s like they are dead while they are really alive. On the other hand, people who are brave and take risks don’t have to go through all these little deaths while they are living. They will only have to die when they actually die.

B. Cowards die many times before their deaths; the valiant never taste of death but once (Julius Caesar II, ii, 32-4).

EXAMPLE 2:

A. I wonder if death would be an improvement to this crappy, meaningless life; I mean, what’s the point of living? What are we doing here?

B. To be or not to be; that is the question (Hamlet III, i, 57).

EXAMPLE 3:

A. There were many bad things happening at that time, but then there were also good things happening, so it was like that time in our lives was both good and bad, bitter and sweet.

B. It was the best of times; it was the worst of times... (Dickens 1).

Most readers select choice B as the more eloquently written phrasing in each of the above examples. Why? Although different readers prefer different writing styles, the word choice and structure of sentence B in each example succinctly, clearly, and directly imparts meaning to the reader. Perhaps this clarity points to the reason these quotes have gained such notoriety over time. (Examples 1 and 2 are from Shakespeare—Julius Caesar and Hamletrespectively; Example 3 is from Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities).

Although using precise wording is not easy, when you take the time to ensure your language and structure convey precisely what you mean, your instructor will likely reward you with the high score you deserve.

Again, don’t feel your professors expect your writing to rival the mastery of Shakespeare or Dickens. Yet, by all means, strive to elevate your vocabulary and writing style. Here are a few ways to approach it:

· Invest in a quality dictionary and thesaurus, or, at the very least, consult online dictionaries and thesauri. (Use The Oxford English Dictionary; most professors consider it the best.)

· Use precise, formal language—avoid slang and informal phrasing.

· Use the proper forms of words; especially check for commonly misspelled words and phrases.

· Read, read, read—the more you read, the better and more quickly your brain will process language and structure.

· Write, write, write—as with anything else, the more you practice a skill, the better you will become at it.

BANNED WORDS AND PHRASES

Avoid using the following words and phrases in academic writing to help formalize your tone, specify your language, and improve reader understanding. The chart below contains explanations of:

1. Why writers should avoid each term or phrase

2. Suggestions for alternatives

NOTORIOUS CONFUSABLES

Study the correct use and spelling of each of the following words.

AFFECT/EFFECT

Affect is a verb. (Remember, affect begins with a and so does action.) Effect is a noun.

I hope my speech positively affects my audience.

The effect of my speech remains unknown.

There is an exception to this rule: When discussing “effecting change,” use effect rather than affect.

He hopes to effect great change during his presidency.

ITS/IT’S

Its is possessive; It’s is a contraction of It is.

The book and its cover are severely tattered.

It’s true that the truth will set you free.

Check your usage of its or it’s by inserting it is wherever you write it’s; if you could correctly apply it is in place of it’s, then you have used the proper form. If not, replace it’s with its and ensure you mean to convey ownership.

THERE/THEIR/THEY’RE

There is a location. Their is a possessive noun. They’re is the contraction of they are.

Over there you will see my huge Labrador and his doghouse.

Their house is beautiful.

They’re the best friends she ever had.

YOUR/YOU’RE

You’re is the contraction of you are. Your is a possessive noun.

You’re the funniest person I have ever known.

Is that your book?

CONSCIENCE/CONSCIOUS

A conscience is an internal voice of morality. To be conscious is to be aware.

I thought about stealing the money, but my conscience bothered me too much to do it; even if I got away with the theft, I would always be conscious of my actions.

ACCESS/EXCESS/ASSESS/EXCEPT

To access means to gain entrance or usage. Excess is an overabundance or too much. To assess means to evaluate. Except is another word for “aside from” or “excluding.”

I would love to access the library’s files, but my library fines are in excess of the limit.

The instructor must assess the quality of the students’ papers.

Everyone is going to the party except Jeff.

ADVISE/ADVICE

Advise is a verb. Advice is a noun.

She advised him on the best restaurants in town; he valued her stellar advice.

ILLUSION/ALLUSION/ELUDE

An illusion is a false image or belief. An allusion is a reference to another work. To elude means to evade capture.

When he traveled through the desert, he often saw the illusion of an oasis, but he never actually found one.

The graduation speaker’s allusion to Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew seemed illogical.

The criminal attempted to elude police capture, but she was finally caught.

ANECDOTE/ANTIDOTE

An anecdote is a personal story or note. An antidote is a cure for poison or relief for a problem.

Our professor’s opening anecdote was quite funny, and we liked the way he related his personal experience to the course material.

We readily welcomed the inspiring movie’s message as an antidote for the horrifying and destructive impact of the preceding war film.

ASSURE/INSURE/ENSURE

To assure is to promise or to give certainty to another person. To ensure is to make certain. When you insure something, you secure it with a policy.

He assured me the problem would never recur.

We studied both our notes and our textbook to ensure we understood all the material.

We bought the policy to insure our home against fire and water damage.

FARTHER/FURTHER

Farther is used when describing physical distance. Further means “more,” as in to give more details.

We ran farther than I ever thought possible.

I asked the instructor to explain her lesson further.

THROUGH/THOROUGH/THOUGH/THRU

Through denotes traversing or passing beyond. Thorough means complete, rigorous, full. Though is another word for but or excepting. Thru should not be used.

We drove through the woods to reach grandmother’s house.

Her work left no stone unturned, no idea unexamined; she proved herself a thorough and intelligent writer.

Accepting truth is a difficult, though necessary, part of life.

CITE/SITE/SIGHT

To cite means to note or give credit to (a source). A site is a physical location. Sight is a vision perceived through one’s eyes.

Instructors require students to cite their sources when writing essays.

The attorney cited a prior court ruling to establish precedence.

The World Trade Center site in New York City is an incredibly sad but hopeful and inspiring place.

The sight of him brought tears to my eyes.

THAN/THEN

Than is used in a comparison. Then is an expression of a moment or a position in time.

My afternoon class is harder than my morning ones.

We went all over town, first to this store, then to that one.

ALL TOGETHER/ALTOGETHER

All together (two words) denotes people or things coming together in the same place. Altogether (one word) means “entirely, completely, in sum.”

We were all together for our last meal with him before he left to go to college.

It was altogether ridiculous that we had to pay and wait in line.

SINCE/SENSE/CENTS/SCENTS

Since is another word for because. Sense is logic, reason, or intelligence. Cents are coins or money. Scents are aromas or smells.

Since he did not have the sense to buy a nice-smelling candle with the few cents we had left to spend, we are stuck with these awful scents of mulberry and pinecone.

ASSURING PROPER USAGE

Study the correct usage of the following terms to help clarify and polish your work.

LESS/FEWER

Less is used to describe intangible, immeasurable quantities. Fewer is used to describe countable items.

We have less money than we did before, which means fewer dollars to spend.

I/ME

To decide whether to use I or me in a sentence, follow the two rules listed below.

RULE 1: Finish the thought completely to see which pronoun would fit correctly in the sentence with the complete thought expressed.

My brother is taller than I/me. (Finish the sentence: My brother is taller than I am. So, use I.)

CORRECT: My brother is taller than I.

RULE 2: Look at the placement of the pronoun in question; if it follows a preposition (about, above, across, with, to, for, by, etc.), use me.

He always buys the best presents for I/me. (The pronoun comes after a preposition, for, so we must use me.)

CORRECT: He always buys the best presents for me.

RULE 3: In a compound sentence with two or more pronouns, drop the other pronouns to see whether I or me would be correct.

They should let my group and I/me speak (You would not say, “Let I speak.” (You would say, “Let me speak,” so the proper pronoun here would be me.)

CORRECT: They should let my group and me speak.

WHO/WHOM

To decide whether to use who or whom, replace the word in question with either he or him; if you can properly use the word he, then use who; if you can properly use him, then use whom. (Sometimes you may have to reorder the sentence, especially in interrogative sentences.)

He = who

Him = whom (Remember, both end with the letter m)

According to who/whom? (Rewrite the sentence to replace the “who/m” with either he or him. Which would be correct?: According to “he” or according to “him”? Since we would say according to “him,” we would use whom, not who.)

CORRECT: According to whom?

THAT/WHICH

That introduces essential information to follow. Which introduces nonessential information to follow.

The book that I checked out from the library is now past due.

The proposed bill, which was written by Senator Cain, did not become ratified until the end of the session.

Remember this rule of thumb: When you introduce nonessential information with which, use a comma. When you introduce essential information with that, do not use a comma.

Which = comma

That = no comma

GOOD/WELL

Good is an adjective. Well is an adverb.

Use good to modify nouns:

the good book, good film, or good idea

Use well to modify verbs:

CORRECT: She writes well.

CORRECT: He sings well.

CORRECT: They play tennis well

Note the exception to this rule: We can correctly use either good or well to express states of being or health.

CORRECT: We feel good today.

CORRECT: I am good.

CORRECT: I feel well today.

CORRECT: I am well.

Remember, the exception only applies to states of being and health, not to actions.

INCORRECT: He hits the ball good for a beginner.

CORRECT: He hits the ball well for a beginner.

CAPITALIZATION

You are probably familiar with the basic rules of capitalization, such as capitalizing other people’s names, the pronoun I, or the first word in a sentence. However, study the lesser-known rules to ensure you understand when to capitalize.

CAPITALIZE:

• Proper Nouns (names of specific people, places, and things)

• Languages (English, French, Latin)

• Specific course titles (College Mathematics 1342)

• Major words (such as nouns, adjectives, and verbs) in titles of artistic works; do not capitalize prepositions, conjunctions, or articles, such as of, and, the, or an—unless they are the first word of the title (The Sound and the Fury, The Lord of the Rings, “What a Wonderful World,” Return of the Jedi)

• Specific place, region, or business titles (Mount Vesuvius, The Rocky Mountains, The South, New York Public Library, United American Bank)

• Titles when they precede the corresponding name (Representative Hardwick, Doctor Dowdy, Aunt Debbie, Uncle Larry, Mayor Quimby)

• Holidays, days of the week, months of the year (Christmas, Tuesday, September)

• Countries, cities, and states (Belgium, San Francisco, Texas)

• Street names, important buildings, and structures (Maple Street, The Empire State Building, The Washington Monument)

• Major historic events and time periods (The Civil War, The Italian Renaissance, The English Enlightenment, World War II)

• Names of specific deities and holy books (God, Zeus, Athena, Yahweh, Allah, the Bible, the Torah, the Bhagavad Gita)

• First Words

• The first word in a direct quote, if the quote comprises a complete sentence

• Thoreau wrote, “If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them.”

• The first word following a colon, if a complete sentence follows the colon

Students must note the following announcement: Finals are cancelled.

DO NOT CAPITALIZE:

• Common Nouns

• Seasons (spring, autumn, summer, winter)

• Disciplines (history, mathematics, art, education)

• General places or business types (library, museum, bank, mall)

• Titles without corresponding names (representative, doctor, judge, aunt)

• Directions (east, west, north, south)

• General places or bodies of water (mountain, hill, ocean, river, lake)

EXAMPLES

Study the following capitalization examples to test your knowledge. If you want further practice, you can download the grammar, spelling, and punctuation test at www.writersdigest.com/essential-college-writing.

EXAMPLE 1

INCORRECT: My University Math class is harder than I thought it would be.

CORRECT: My university math class is harder than I thought it would be.

EXAMPLE 2

INCORRECT: Our History Professor earned her degree from Harvard university.

CORRECT: Our history professor earned her degree from Harvard University.

EXAMPLE 3

INCORRECT: Mr. Jenkins, my Doctor, said I needed to take some Medication for my sore throat. He recommended something called allergin.

CORRECT: Mr. Jenkins, my doctor, said I needed to take some medication for my sore throat. He recommended something called Allergin.

EXAMPLE 4

INCORRECT: I went to the Library, but I turned West instead of North, so I ended up on Mary street.

CORRECT: I went to the library, but I turned west instead of north, so I ended up on Mary Street.

CORRECT: I went to the Manchaca Library, but I turned west instead of north, so I ended up on Mary Street.

EXAMPLE 5

INCORRECT: This Fall, I hope to travel to europe sometime in October so I can go to Paris and visit the Eiffel tower, see the great River running through the city, and brush up on my french.

CORRECT: This fall, I hope to travel to Europe sometime in October so I can go to Paris and visit the Eiffel Tower, see the great river running through the city, and brush up on my French.

EXAMPLE 6

INCORRECT: In my American history 1301 class, we are studying the civil war, and professor Rathbone told us this particular war was “The bloodiest in American History.”

CORRECT: In my American History 1301 class, we are studying The Civil War, and Professor Rathbone told us this particular war was “the bloodiest in American history.”