English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

Reference Section

Verb forms and the formation of verb phrases

R50 Verbs have several forms. These forms can be used on their own or combined with special verbs called auxiliaries. When a verb or a combination of a verb and an auxiliary is used in a clause, it is called a verb phrase. Verb phrases can be finite or non-finite. If a verb phrase is finite, it has a tense. A non-finite verb phrase contains a verb in the form of an infinitive or an -ed or -ing participle.

Verb phrases are used to refer to actions, states, and processes. The use of verb phrases in clauses to make statements is explained in Chapter 3.

R51 Verb phrases can be active or passive. You use an active verb phrase if you are concentrating on the performer of an action, and you use a passive verb phrase if you are concentrating on someone or something that is affected by an action. Further information on the use of passive verb phrases is given in Chapter 9 (9.8 to 9.24).

R52 Regular verbs have the following forms:

a base form e.g. walk

an s form e.g. walks

an -ing participle e.g. walking

a past form e.g. walked

The base form of a verb is the form that is used in the infinitive. It is the form that is given first in a dictionary where a verb is explained, and that is given in the lists in this grammar.

The s form of a verb consists of the base form with s on the end.

The -ing participle usually consists of the base form with ing on the end. It is sometimes called the present participle.

The past form of a verb usually consists of the base form with ed on the end.

In the case of regular verbs, the past form is used for the past tense and is also used as the -ed participle. It is sometimes called the past participle.

However, with many irregular verbs (see paragraph R72) there are two different forms:

a past tense form e.g. stole

an -ed participle form e.g. stolen

There are rules about the spelling of the different forms of verbs, depending on their endings. These are explained in paragraphs R54 to R70.

Certain verbs, especially common ones, have irregular forms. These are listed in paragraphs R72 to R75.

The forms of the auxiliaries be, have, and do are given in paragraph R80.

R53 Each verb form has various uses.

The base form is used for the present tense, the imperative, and the infinitive, and is used after modals.

The s form is used for the third person singular of the present tense.

The -ing participle is used for progressive forms, -ing adjectives, -ing nouns, and some clauses.

The past form is used for the past simple, and for the -ed participle of regular verbs.

The -ed participle is used for perfect forms, passives, -ed adjectives, and some clauses.

R54 The basic verb forms have been described in paragraph R52. The following paragraphs explain how the various forms of verbs are spelled. They also give details of verbs that have irregular forms. The forms of the auxiliaries be, have, and do are dealt with separately in paragraphs R80 to R88.

R55 The s form of most verbs consists of the base form of the verb with s added to the end.

When the s follows one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /t/, or /θ/, it is pronounced /s/.

When the s follows one of the sounds /S/, /z/, or /ʤ/, it is pronounced /Iz/.

In most other cases the s is pronounced /z/.

R56 With verbs whose base form ends in a consonant letter followed by y, you substitute ies for y to form the s form.

R57 With verbs which end in sh, ch, ss, x, zz, or o, es rather than s is added to the base form of the verb. The es is pronounced /Iz/ when it is added to a consonant sound, and pronounced /z/ when it is added to a vowel sound.

R58  With one-syllable verbs that end in a single s, you usually add ses. Forms with a single s are more common in American English.

R59 Most verbs have -ing participles formed by adding ing to the base form, and past forms formed by adding ed to the base form.

With all -ing participles, the ing is pronounced as a separate syllable: /Iŋ/.

With verbs whose base form ends with one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /s/, /ʃ/, or /tʃ/, the ed of the past form is pronounced /t/. For example, pressed is pronounced /prest/ and watched is pronounced /wɒtʃt/.

With verbs whose base forms ends with the sound /d/ or /t/, the ed of the past form is pronounced /d/. For example, patted is pronounced /pæId/ and faded is pronounced /feIdId/.

With all other verbs, the ed of the past form is pronounced /d/. For example, joined is pronounced /ʤɔInd/ and lived is pronounced /lIvd/.

R60 With most verbs that end in e, the -ing participle is formed by substituting ing for the final e. Similarly, you substitute ed for the final e to form the past form.

R61 In the case of a few verbs ending in e, you just add ing in the normal way to form the -ing participle. You still substitute ed for e to form the past.

Here is a list of these verbs:

age

agree

binge

canoe

disagree

dye

eye

flee

free

glue

knee

queue

referee

see

singe

tiptoe

whinge

R62 To form the -ing participle of a verb that ends in ie, you substitute ying for ie.

Note that the past form of such verbs is regular, following the pattern in R60.

R63 To form the past form of a verb that ends in a consonant letter followed by y, you substitute ied for y.

Note that the -ing participle of such verbs is regular, following the pattern in R59.

R64 If the base form of a verb has one syllable and ends with a single vowel letter followed by a consonant letter, you double the final consonant letter before adding ing to form the -ing participle or ed to form the past form.

Note that this does not apply if the final consonant letter is w, x, or y.

R65 The final consonant letter of some two-syllable verbs is also doubled. This happens when the second syllable ends in a single vowel letter followed by a consonant letter, and is stressed.

R66 In British English, when a two syllable verb ends in a single vowel letter followed by a single l, the l is doubled before ing or ed is added to it, even if there is no stress on the last syllable.

A few other verbs also have their final consonant letter doubled.

R67  All the verbs described in R66, except handicap, can have their -ing participle and past form spelled with a single consonant letter in American English.

R68 Here is a list of the verbs whose final consonant letter is doubled before ing and ed in both British and American English:

ban

bar

bat

beg

blot

blur

bob

brag

brim

bug

cap

chat

chip

chop

clap

clog

clot

cram

crib

crop

cup

dab

dam

dim

din

dip

dot

drag

drop

drug

drum

dub

fan

fit

flag

flap

flip

flop

fog

fret

gas

gel

glut

grab

grin

grip

grit

grub

gun

gut

hem

hop

hug

hum

jam

jet

jig

jog

jot

knit

knot

lag

lap

log

lop

man

mar

mob

mop

mug

nag

net

nip

nod

pad

pat

peg

pen

pet

pin

pit

plan

plod

plug

pop

prod

prop

rib

rig

rip

rob

rot

rub

sag

scan

scar

scrap

scrub

ship

shop

shred

shrug

shun

sin

sip

skid

skim

skin

skip

slam

slap

slim

slip

slop

slot

slum

slur

snag

snap

snip

snub

sob

spot

squat

stab

star

stem

step

stir

stop

strap

strip

strut

stun

sun

swab

swap

swat

swig

swot

tag

tan

tap

thin

throb

tip

top

trap

trek

trim

trip

trot

vet

wag

wrap

~

abet

abhor

acquit

admit

allot

commit

compel

confer

control

defer

deter

distil

embed

emit

enrol

enthral

equip

excel

expel

incur

instil

occur

omit

outwit

patrol

propel

rebel

rebut

recap

recur

refer

regret

remit

repel

submit

transfer

transmit

~

handicap

Note that verbs such as re-equip and unclog, which consist of a prefix and one of the above verbs, also have their final consonant letter doubled.

R69 Here is a list of verbs whose final consonant letter is doubled before ing and ed in British English but not always in American English:

bedevil

cancel

channel

chisel

dial

duel

enamel

enrol

enthral

equal

fuel

funnel

gambol

grovel

hiccup

initial

kidnap

label

level

libel

marshal

marvel

model

panel

pedal

pencil

program

pummel

quarrel

refuel

revel

rival

shovel

shrivel

snivel

spiral

stencil

swivel

total

travel

tunnel

unravel

worship

yodel

R70 With verbs ending in c, king and ked are usually added instead of ing and ed.

R71 A large number of verbs have irregular forms, which are not formed by adding ed to the base form.

With regular verbs, the -ed participle is the same as the past form. However, with some irregular verbs, the two forms are different.

R72 The table opposite gives a list of irregular verbs and their forms.

Note that the past form and -ed participle of read appear the same as the base form but are pronounced differently. The base form is pronounced /rid/ and the past form and -ed participle /red/. See a Cobuild dictionary for the pronunciation of irregular forms of verbs.

R73 Some verbs have more than one past form or -ed participle form. For example, the past form and -ed participle of spell can be either spelled or spelt, and the -ed participle of prove can be either proved or proven.

He burned several letters.
He burnt all his papers.

His foot had swelled to three times normal size.
His wrist had swollen up and become huge.

R74 Some verbs have two forms that can be used as the past form and the -ed participle. Here is a list of these verbs. The regular form is given first, although it may not be the more common one.

 All of the irregular forms ending in t are far more common in British English than in American English, which generally uses the regular form for these verbs.

R75 Here is a list of verbs with two past forms:

Here is a list of verbs with two -ed participle forms:

 In American English, gotten is usually used instead of got as the -ed participle of get. However, American English always uses got rather than gotten in two common constructions: have got (meaning own or possess), and have got to meaning must).

Have you got change for the parking meter?
You have got to start paying more attention to deadlines.

The past forms of these constructions in American English are never had got. Instead, they use the past form of have.

Did you have change for the parking meter?
She said I had to start paying more attention to deadlines.

Note that some verbs appear in both the above lists as they have a different past form and -ed participle form, each of which has more than one form.

R76 In some cases, different past forms or -ed participle forms relate to different meanings or uses of the verb. For example, the past form and the -ed participle of the verb hang is normally hung. However, hanged can also be used but with a different meaning. Check the different meanings in a Cobuild dictionary.

An Iron Cross hung from a ribbon around the man’s neck.
He had been found guilty of murder hanged.

They had bid down the chemical company’s stock.
He had bidden her to buy the best.

R77 Some verbs consist of more than one word, for example browbeat and typeset, and some consist of a prefix plus a verb, for example undo and disconnect.

His teachers underestimate his ability.
We are always trying to outdo our competitors.
The figures show that the government has mismanaged the economy.

R78 Verbs that consist of more than one word or of a prefix plus a verb usually inflect in the same way as the verbs that form their final part. For example, the past form of foresee is foresaw and the -ed participle is foreseen, and the past form and past -ed of misunderstand is misunderstood.

I underestimated him.
He had outdone himself.

I had misunderstood and mismanaged everything.
She had disappeared into the kitchen and reappeared with a flashlight.

R79 With many verbs of this type, the fact that they consist of two parts does not make any difference to their forms. They follow the normal spelling rules.

Here is a list of verbs whose second part is an irregular verb:

browbeat

broadcast

forecast

miscast

recast

typecast

overcome

undercut

outdo

overdo

undo

withdraw

overeat

befall

forego

undergo

outgrow

overheat

mishear

behold

uphold

withhold

mislay

waylay

mislead

remake

repay

misread

override

outrun

overrun

re-run

foresee

oversee

outsell

resell

beset

reset

typeset

outshine

overshoot

oversleep

misspell

withstand

hamstring

mistake

overtake

retake

undertake

foretell

retell

rethink

overthrow

misunderstand

rewind

unwind

rewrite

underwrite

Note the past forms and -ed participle of the verbs shown below, whose second part is a verb with alternative past forms and -ed participle.

Here is a list of compound verbs whose second part is an irregular verb:

bottle-feed

breast-feed

force-feed

spoon-feed

baby-sit

lip-read

proof-read

sight-read

ghost-write

R80 The different forms of the auxiliaries be, have, and do are summarized in the table below.

R81 The present forms of be can usually be contracted and added to the end of the subject of the verb, whether it is a noun or a pronoun. This is often done in spoken English or in informal written English.

I’m interested in the role of women all over the world. You’re late.

We’re making some progress. It’s a delightful country.

My car’s just across the street.

The contracted forms of be are shown in the table above.

R82 Contracted forms of be are not used at the end of affirmative statements. The full form must be used instead. For example, you say Richard’s not very happy but Andrew is. You cannot say Richard’s not very happy but Andrew’s.

However, you can use a contracted form of be at the end of a negative statement if it is followed by not. For example, Mary’s quite happy, but her mother’s not’

R83 When be is used in negative clauses, either the verb or not can be contracted. For more information on contractions in negative clauses, see paragraphs 5.59 to 5.60.

R84 The present and past forms of have can also be contracted. This is usually only done when have is being used as an auxiliary.

I’ve changed my mind.
This is the first party we’ve been to in months.

She’s become a very interesting young woman.
I do wish you’d met Guy.

She’s managed to keep it quiet. We’d done a good job.

The contracted forms of have are shown in the table at paragraph R80.

R85 ’s can be short for either is or has. You can tell what ’s represents by looking at the next word. If ’s represents is, it is followed by an -ing participle, complement, or adverbial. If it represents has, it is usually followed by an -ed participle.

She’s going to be all right. She’s a lovely person.

She’s gone to see some social work people.

R86 A noun ending in ’s could also be a possessive. It is followed by another noun when this is the case. For more information on possessives see paragraphs 1.211 to 1.221.

R87 Is and has are written in full after nouns ending in x, ch, sh, s, or z, although in speech has is sometimes pronounced as /ǝz/ after these nouns.

R88 ’d can be short for either had or would. You can tell what ’d represents by looking at the next word. If ’d represents would, it is followed by the base form of a verb. If it represents had, it is usually followed by an -edparticiple.

We’d have to try to escape. ’It’d be cheaper to go by train,’ Alan said.

At least we’d had the courage to admit it. She’d bought new sunglasses with tinted lenses.

The formation of tenses

R89 A finite verb phrase is the type of verb phrase that goes with a subject. It contains a form of the main verb (the one that you are using to convey your meaning), and often one or more auxiliaries.

A finite verb phrase has the following structure:

(modal)(have)(be)(be) main verb.

You choose the elements in brackets according to, for example, whether you are talking about the past or the present, or whether you are concentrating on the performer of an action or the thing affected by it. They are called auxiliaries.

If you want to indicate possibility, or to show your attitude to your hearer or to what you are saying, you use a type of auxiliary called a modal. Modals must be followed by a base form (an infinitive without to). The use of modals is explained in Chapter 5 (5.92 to 5.256).

She might see us.
She could have seen us.

If you want to use a perfect form, you use a form of have. This must be followed by an -ed participle.

She has seen us.
She had been watching us for some time.

If you want to use a progressive form, you use a form of be. This must be followed by an -ing participle.

She was watching us.
We were being watched.

If you want to use the passive, you use a form of be. This must be followed by an -ed participle.

We were seen.
We were being watched.

If there is an auxiliary in front of the main verb, you use an appropriate form of the main verb, as mentioned above. If there is no auxiliary, you use an appropriate simple form.

The verb do is also used as an auxiliary, with simple forms, but only in questions, negative statements, and negative imperative clauses, or when you want to be very emphatic. It is followed by the base form of the main verb. Detailed information on the uses of do is given in Chapter 5.

Do you want me to do something about it?
I do not remember her.
I do enjoy being with you.

R90 A finite verb phrase always has a tense, unless it begins with a modal. Tense is the relationship between the form of a verb and the time to which it refers.

This section deals with the ways in which main verbs and auxiliaries can be used to construct different forms. The way in which particular forms are used to indicate particular times in relation to the time of speaking or to the time of an event is covered in paragraphs 4.7 to 4.69.

R91 When a verb is being used in a simple form, that is, the present simple or the past simple, it consists of just one word, a form of the main verb.

I feel tired.
Mary lived there for five years.

For progressive and perfect forms, one or more auxiliaries are used in combination with the main verb.

I am feeling reckless tonight.
I have lived here all my life.

R92 The first word of a finite verb phrase must agree with the subject of the clause. This affects the present simple, and all forms that begin with the present or past tense of be or the present tense of have.

For example, if the form is the present perfect and the subject is John, then the form of the auxiliary have must be has.

John has seemed worried lately.
She likes me.

Your lunch is getting cold.

R93 In this section the examples given are declarative clauses. The order of words in questions is different from the order in declarative clauses. See paragraphs 5.10 to 5.34 for information about this.

R94 Progressive forms are constructed using an appropriate tense of the auxiliary be and the -ing participle. Detailed information on how to construct these forms is included below. The uses of progressive forms are explained in detail in paragraphs 4.7 to 4.69.

R95 The formation of active sentences is explained below. The formation of the passive is explained in paragraphs R109 to R118.

R96 The present simple form of a verb is the same as the base form with all subjects except the third person singular.

I want a breath of air.
We advise everyone to call half an hour before they arrive.
They give you a certificate and then tell you to get a job.

The third person singular form is the s form.

Flora puts her head back, and laughs again. Money decides everything, she thought.
Mr Paterson plays Phil Hoskins in the TV drama.

R97 The present progressive is formed by using the present tense of be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

People who have no faith in art are running the art schools.
The garden industry is booming.
Things are changing.

R98 The past simple form of a regular verb is formed by adding ed to the base form of regular verbs.

The moment he entered the classroom all eyes turned on him.
He walked out of the kitchen and climbed the stairs.
It was dark by the time I reached East London.

R99 The past progressive is formed by using the past tense of be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

Their questions were beginning to drive me crazy.
We believed we were fighting for a good cause.
At the time, I was dreading the exam.

R100 The present perfect is formed by using the present tense of have and the -ed participle of the main verb.

Advances have continued, but productivity has fallen.
Football has become international.
I have seen this before.

R101 The present perfect progressive is formed by using the present perfect of be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

Howard has been working hard over the recess.
What we have been describing is very simple.
Their shares have been going up.

R102 The past perfect is formed by using had and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The Indian summer had returned for a day.
Everyone had liked her.
Murray had resented the changes I had made.

R103 The past perfect progressive is formed by using had been and the -ing participle of the main verb.

She did not know how long she had been lying there.
For ten years of her life, teachers had been making up her mind for her.
I had been showing a woman around with her little boy.

R104 There are several ways of referring to the future in English. The simple future involves using the modal will or shall and the base form of the verb.

It is exactly the sort of scheme he will like.
My receptionist will help you choose the frames.
Don’t drop crumbs or we shall have mice.

 In spoken English, the contracted form ’ll is usually used instead of will or shall, unless you want to be emphatic.

Send him into the Army; he’ll learn a bit of discipline there.
As soon as we get the tickets they’ll be sent out to you.
Next week we’ll be looking at the history of dance.

R105 If the full forms are used, will is generally used if the subject of the verb is not I or we. Shall is sometimes used if the subject is I or we, otherwise will is used.

Inflation is rising and will continue to rise.
I shall be away tomorrow.

R106 The future progressive is formed by using will or shall, followed by be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

Indeed, we will be opposing that policy.
Ford manual workers will be claiming a ten per cent pay rise.
I shall be leaving soon.

R107 The future perfect is formed by using will or shall, followed by have and the -ed participle of the main verb.

Long before you return, they will have forgotten you.
By next week will have reached the end of the book.
By that time, I shall have retired.

R108 The future perfect progressive is formed by using will or shall, followed by have been and the -ing participle of the main verb.

By March, I will have been doing this job for six years.
Saturday week, I will have been going out with Susan for three months.

R109 Passive forms are constructed using an appropriate tense of be and the -ed participle of the main verb. Detailed information on forming the passive is given below.

R110 The present simple passive is formed by using the present simple of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The earth is baked by the sun into a hard, brittle layer.
If you are on a full-time course you are treated as your parents’ dependent.
Specific subjects are discussed.

R111 The present progressive passive is formed by using the present progressive of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The buffet counter is being arranged by the attendant.
It is something quite irrelevant to what is being discussed.
Jobs are still being lost.

R112 The past simple passive is formed by using the past simple of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

No date was announced for the talks.
The walls were covered with pictures of actors.
Several new cottages were built on the land.

R113 The past progressive passive is formed by using the past progressive of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The stage was being set for future profits.
Before long, machines were being used to create codes.
Strenuous efforts were being made last night to end the dispute.

R114 The present perfect passive is formed by using the present perfect of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The guest-room window has been mended.
I think real progress has been made.
The dirty plates have been stacked in a pile on the table.

R115 The past perfect passive is formed by using had been and the -ed participle of the main verb.

They had been taught to be critical.
They had been driven home in the station wagon.

R116 The future passive is formed by using will or shall, followed by be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

His own authority will be undermined.
Congress will be asked to approve an increase of 47.5 per cent.

R117 The future perfect passive is formed by using will or shall, followed by have been and the -ed participle of the main verb.

Another goal will have been achieved.
The figures will have been distorted by the effects of the strike.

R118 The future progressive passive and the perfect progressive passive are rarely used.

R119 The table below gives a summary of the active and passive forms. The passive forms marked with a star are very rarely used.

R120 There are some verbs that are not usually used in the progressive, and some that are not used in the progressive in one or more of their main meanings.

Here is a list of verbs that are not usually used in the progressive:

astonish

be

believe

belong

concern

consist

contain

deserve

envy

exist

have

know

last

matter

owe

own

possess

resemble

satisfy

seem

suppose

suspect

understand

Verbs of this type are sometimes called stative verbs. Verbs that can be used in the progressive are sometimes called dynamic verbs. For more information about stative verbs, see paragraph 4.69.

There are other verbs that are traditionally described as stative, but that are sometimes used in the progressive, particularly in less formal texts. For more information about these verbs, see 4.69.

R121 Be is not generally used as a main verb in the progressive with adjectives that indicate permanent characteristics, or with attributes that do not relate to behaviour. However, be is used in the progressive to indicate someone’s behaviour at a particular time.

He is extremely nice.
He was an American.

You ‘re being very silly.

Have is not used as a main verb in the progressive when it indicates possession, but it is sometimes used in the progressive when it indicates that someone is doing something.

I have two dinghies.
We were just having a philosophical discussion.

R122 Some verbs have very specific senses in which they are not used in the progressive. For example, smell is often used in the progressive when it means to smell something, but rarely when it means to smell of something. Compare the sentences I was just smelling your flowers, and Your flowers smell lovely.

Here is a list of verbs that are not usually used in the progressive when they have the meanings indicated:

appear (seem)

depend (be related to)

feel (have an opinion)

fit (be suitable/be the right size)

hear (be aware of a sound)

mean (have a particular meaning)

measure (have length)

recognize (identify a person)

smell (of something)

taste (of something)

weigh (have weight)

R123 The imperative form of a verb is regarded as finite, because it can stand as the verb of a main clause. However, it does not show tense in the same way as other finite verb phrases. It is always in the base form. See paragraphs 5.35 to 5.39 for the uses of the imperative.

Stop being silly. Come here.

Infinitives and participles

R124 Infinitives and -ing participles are used after certain verbs such as stop, like, and want (see paragraphs 3.182 to 3.212) and -ing and -ed participles also used in certain subordinate clauses (see the section on subordinate clauses in Chapter 8). Infinitives and -ing participles are also used in some structures with impersonal it (see paragraphs 9.31 to 9.45).

To-infinitives are also used after some nouns and adjectives (see paragraphs 2.293 to 2.302, and 2.51 to 2.62). You can also use -ing participles as the objects of prepositions.

Participles and infinitives can have objects, complements, or adverbials after them, just like verbs that have a tense. A clause beginning with a to-infinitive is called a to-infinitive clause, a clause beginning with an -ingparticiple is called an -ing participle clause, and a clause beginning with an -ed participle is called an -ed participle clause.

R125 The order of auxiliaries is the same as for verbs that have a tense (see paragraph R89).

R126 The active to-infinitive consists of to and the base form of the verb. This is sometimes simply called the infinitive.

I want to escape from here.
I asked David to go with me.

R127 The active infinitive without to consists of the base form of the verb. It is sometimes called the bare infinitive.

They helped me get settled here.

R128 Other active infinitive forms are occasionally used.

The present progressive infinitive consists of to be or be, followed by the -ing participle.

It is much better for young children to be living at home.

The perfect or past infinitive consists of to have or have, followed by the -ed participle.

Only two are known to have defected.
She must have drowned.

The perfect or past progressive infinitive consists of to have been or have been, followed by the -ing participle.

I seem to have been eating all evening.

R129 There are also passive infinitives. The ordinary passive infinitive consists of to be or be, followed by the -ed participle.

I didn’t want to be caught off guard.
He let it be known that he would be home all evening.

The perfect or past passive infinitive consists of to have been or have been, followed by the -ed participle.

He seems to have been completely forgotten.

R130 The table below gives a summary of infinitives. The passive infinitives marked with a star are very rarely used.

R131 The -ing participle is used as a verb phrase, usually with an active meaning.

You could play me a tune, said Simon, sitting down.
He could keep in touch with me by writing letters.

R132 Combinations beginning with having are occasionally used.

The perfect or past-ing form consists of having and the -ed participle.

Ash, having forgotten his fear, had become bored and restless.

R133 There are also combinations beginning with being and having, which have a passive meaning.

The ordinary passive -ing form consists of being and the -ed participle.

…fears that patients would resent being interviewed by a computer.

The perfect or past -ing form consists of having been and the -ed participle.

Having been declared insane, he was confined in a prison hospital.
They were taken to hospital after having been wounded by gunshot.

R134 The table below gives a summary of -ing forms. The -ing form marked with a star is very rarely used.

R135 The -ed participle is also used as a verb phrase, with a passive meaning.

Stunned by the attack, the enemy were overwhelmed.
When challenged, she seemed quite surprised.