English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

The grammar of academic English

The style of your message

Once you have decided on your message, you need to formulate it so that you can achieve the effect you are aiming for. Common ways of presenting information are described below.

Distancing

Present your text using an impersonal voice. This allows you to focus on the issues rather than on the people involved. The structures below are especially useful for avoiding I.

impersonal it

You can remove focus from people by using impersonal it (see 9.31 to 9.45).

It is almost an occupational hazard accepted by virologists.

Use impersonal it and a passive form of a reporting verb if your message is an opinion held by an unspecified group of people (see 7.69 to 7.73).

It is widely believed that this substance is harmful.
It is acknowledged that resources are unevenly distributed.

Note that you can also use a reporting verb in the passive, followed by a to-infinitive (see 7.69).

This substance is believed to be harmful.
UVB and UVA are both reported to cause skin cancer.

there is, there are

When you want to say that something exists, or you want to introduce something new, use there as a subject (see 9.46 to 9.55).

There are several claims to be considered in relation to this perspective.

There are no fewer than thirteen different species of otter.

research or text in subject position

In a conclusion or an example, do not write I have discovered…. Instead, put a word such as findings or results in subject position.

These findings suggest that there are two different processing methods.
The results show that this problem is widespread.

the passive

You can use the passive without by to describe procedures when the performer of the action does not need to be specified.

The tissue sample was removed, analysed and stored.
The engine was re-tested after the malfunction.

Note that it is important not to over-use the passive, as it can make your writing difficult to read.

verbs that indicate a change of state

Use verbs such as continue, decrease, and increase to describe events that involve a change of state (see 3.59 to 3.67).

The situation continues to be a cause for concern.
The rate of change slowed in the second half of the year.

The result of a change of state can be shown in a subordinate clause beginning with an -ing form (see 8.141).

Prices rose, leading to a fall in demand.
Appetite is lessened, resulting in weight loss and dietary problems.

Reporting

An important aspect of academic speaking and writing involves reporting (or citing) the work of other academics.

Citations can be used to explain the basis of your work, to support and illustrate your arguments, or to contrast your ideas with other writers’ theories.

Citations sometimes take the form of direct quotes; however, the reported information is usually summarized in your own words.

The following reporting verbs are commonly used in academic English to introduce cited material (see 7.5 to 7.11).

Theses verbs indicate the type of activity reported:

Nuttall and Gipps (1982) estimate that the direct cost of the APU was £800,000 per year.
Collins and Ellis (2001) also challenge the traditional concept of the individual.

Note that the verbs that you use will depend on your academic discipline. Research-related verbs are more common in technical and scientific writing; mental and verbal activity verbs are more common in the humanities and social sciences.

These verbs indicate your attitude to the reported material:

Wenger’s data show that 43 percent of elderly people named as a confidant someone they had known for at least 50 years.
This evidence fails to acknowledge the importance of the children’s diet.

These verbs indicate the cited author’s attitude to the material:

Both Smith and Goodman (2000) maintain that skilled adult reading is far from error-free.
Bly argues that the process of initiation into adulthood is easier for women than for men.

Note that verbs that indicate attitude are more commonly used in the humanities and the social sciences.

Expressing degrees of certainty

When you are formulating your message, you need to consider how strongly you want to make your claim. Different structures express different degrees of certainty, and allow you to establish a position that you can defend if you are criticized.

For example, it is possible to defend the following statement:

Certain researchers have attempted to show that some underprivileged children cannot engage in play.

The following would be less easy to defend:

Researchers have shown that underprivileged children cannot engage in play.

not being precise

You can use the following adverbs when the available information is not precise.

Increased risk of infection is predominantly linked to poor sanitation.

cautious language

You can use more cautious language when you think that other people may disagree with your statement, or when you want to express uncertainty about whether or not a proposition is true. This may be because you really are uncertain, or because you want to create opportunities for readers to decide for themselves.

The following lists show distancing structures that are commonly used for making stements sound more cautious.

There is, arguably, a common thread in all these positions.
As will be seen later, current models are inadequate in some respects.

Note that if you express too much uncertainty, or if you repeatedly show that you are not sure if something is true, your message will have less worth, and it will be difficult to interpret.

Emphasizing

In general English, you can use strong words to emphasize a point. In academic English, you often show emphasis by changing the normal word order of a statement.

subordinate clause in first position

Subordinate clauses normally occur in first position in academic texts. The main clause carries the new or most important information.

You can use the following structures to show that something important is going to be announced at the end of the sentence.

nominal relative clauses (see 8.112 to 8.116)

What is now required is a systematic investigation of the data.

prefacing structures (see 9.73 to 9.78)

The question we now need to consider is whether the dosage should be reduced.

split sentences (see 9.25 to 9.30)

It was this declaration which triggered the events that followed.