English Grammar, Third edition (2011)
6. Expressing manner and place: other adverbials
Introduction
6.1 When you are talking about an event or a situation, you sometimes want to say something about it that has not been indicated by the subject, verb, object, or complement. You do this by using an adverbial.
An adverbial is a word or group of words that you use when you want to say when an event or situation occurs, how it occurs, how much it occurs, or where it occurs.
I was soon lost.
She laughed quietly.
She was tremendously impressed.
He fumbled in his pocket.
adverb phrases
6.2 The two main types of adverbial are adverb phrases and prepositional phrases.
He acted very clumsily.
I cannot speak too highly of their courage and skill.
He takes his job very seriously indeed.
He did not play well enough throughout the week to deserve to win.
However, adverbs very often occur on their own.
I shook her gently.
He greatly admired Cezanne.
He scarcely knew his aunt
The number will probably be higher than we expected.
For more information about adverbs, see the section beginning at paragraph 6.16.
prepositional phrases
6.3 Adverbials that consist of a preposition and a noun, such as in a box and to the station, are called prepositional phrases. These are dealt with in detail in the section beginning at paragraph 6.73.
Large cushions lay on the floor.
The voice was coming from my apartment.
noun phrases
6.4 Occasionally, noun phrases can also be used as adverbials.
He was looking really ill this time yesterday.
I’m going to handle this my way.
When noun phrases are used as adverbials, they most often relate to time. Time adverbials are dealt with in Chapter 4. Noun phrases that relate to place are dealt with at paragraph 6.72; those that relate to manner are dealt with at paragraph 6.44, and those that relate to degree at paragraph 6.52.
For more information on noun phrases in general, see Chapters 1 and 2.
adding meaning to verb phrases
6.5 The most common way in which adverb phrases give additional information is by adding something to the meaning of a verb phrase.
He nodded and smiled warmly.
The report says that hospitals and rescue services coped extremely well.
I could find that out fairly easily.
Prepositional phrases have a wider range of meanings.
It was estimated that at least 2,000 people were on the two trains.
Kenny Stuart came second, knocking two minutes off his previous best time.
For the first time since I’d been pregnant I felt well.
Many intransitive verbs normally require an adverbial. See paragraph 3.10 for more information about these.
Ashton had behaved abominably.
She turned and rushed out of the room.
Some transitive verbs normally require an adverbial after the object of the verb. For more information about these, see paragraph 3.19.
I put my hand on the door.
adding meaning to clauses
6.6 Adverbials can also add meaning to a whole clause, for example by giving the writer’s or speaker’s comment on it. For more information, see the section on sentence adverbials beginning at paragraph 9.56.
Obviously crime is going to be squeezed in a variety of ways.
Fortunately, the damage had been slight.
Ideally the dairy should have a concrete or tiled floor.
No doubt she loves Gertrude too.
They can also show the way in which one sentence is linked to another clause. For more information, see the section on sentence connectors beginning at paragraph 10.48.
The second paragraph repeats the information given in the first paragraph. Therefore, it isn’t necessary.
Position of adverbials
6.7 The position of adverbials within clauses is flexible, allowing many changes of emphasis and focus.
Adverbials are normally placed at the end of the clause after the verb phrase, or after an object if there is one.
She packed carefully.
They would go on talking for hours.
I enjoyed the course immensely.
beginning of clause for emphasis
6.8 You can emphasize the adverbial by placing it at the beginning of the clause, in front of the subject.
Gently Fiona leaned forward and wiped the old lady’s tears away.
In his excitement Billy had forgotten the letter.
The adverbial is often separated by a comma from the rest of the clause.
After much discussion, they had decided to take the coin to the jeweller.
This position is often used in written stories to draw attention to the adverbial. For more information, see paragraph 9.70.
Note that adverbs of degree are rarely used at the beginning of a clause: see paragraph 6.45.
between subject and verb
6.9 Adverbials can also be placed between the subject and the main verb. This focuses on the adverbial more than when it is at the end of the clause, but not as much as putting it at the beginning of the clause. However, this position is much more common with adverbs than with prepositional phrases.
I quickly became aware that she was looking at me.
We often swam in the surf.
He carefully wrapped each component in several layers of foam rubber.
He noisily opened the fridge and took out a carton of milk.
Note that in verb phrases containing auxiliaries, the adverbial is still placed in front of the main verb.
I had almost forgotten about the trip.
We will never have enough money to provide all the services that people want.
It would not in any case be for him.
Long adverbials in this position are usually separated by commas from the rest of the clause.
Fred, in his own way, was a great actor.
Adverbials of place rarely occur in this position. For more information about adverbials of place, see the section beginning at paragraph 6.53.
6.10 Some adverbials are often placed in front of the main verb:
most adverbs of indefinite frequency (see paragraph 4.114)
always
constantly
continually
continuously
ever
frequently
hardly ever
never
normally
occasionally
often
rarely
regularly
repeatedly
seldom
sometimes
usually
some adverbs of indefinite time (see paragraph 4.41)
again
already
earlier
finally
first
just
last
previously
recently
since
some adverbs of degree (see paragraph 6.45), especially emphasizing adverbs (see paragraph 6.49)
absolutely
almost
altogether
badly
completely
deeply
entirely
fairly
greatly
largely
nearly
perfectly
quite
rather
really
somewhat
totally
utterly
virtually
well
focusing adverbs, when modifying a verb (see paragraph 9.67)
even
just
merely
only
really
simply
Note that some adverbs have a different reference when they are placed in front of the main verb rather than at the end of the clause:
The Trade Unions have acted foolishly.
Baldwin had foolishly opened the door.
The first example means that the Unions acted in a foolish way. The second example means that opening the door was a foolish action, and not that the door was opened in a foolish way.
Americans always tip generously.
He generously offered to drive me home.
The first example tells us how well Americans tip, the second example indicates that his offer was a generous action.
USAGE NOTE
6.11 If the verb is a to-infinitive, you usually put an adverb after it, or after the object if there is one.
He tried to leave quietly.
Thomas made an appointment to see him immediately.
Some people, however, particularly when they are speaking, do put adverbs between the to and the infinitive. This use is considered to be incorrect by some speakers of English.
My wife told me to probably expect you, he said.
Vauxhall are attempting to really break into the market.
Sometimes, however, if you avoid putting the adverb between the to and the infinitive, you change the emphasis of the sentence, or it can sound clumsy. In such cases, splitting the infinitive, as it is called, is now generally considered acceptable.
Participants will be encouraged to actively participate in the workshop.
I want you to really enjoy yourself.
Note that the second example above means I want you to enjoy yourself very much. If you said I really want you to enjoy yourself, you would mean It is very important for me that you enjoy yourself.
minor points about position
6.12 If a clause has two adverbials, and one is an adverb and the other is a prepositional phrase, you can usually place either of them first.
Miss Burns looked calmly at Marianne.
They were sitting happily in the car.
The women shouted at me savagely.
He got into the car quickly and drove off.
However, if the prepositional phrase is rather long, it is more common to place the adverb first, immediately after the verb.
He listened calmly to the report of his aides.
She would sit cross-legged in her red robes.
Similarly, if the verb phrase is followed by a long object, the adverb comes after the verb and before the object.
She sang beautifully a school song the children had taught her when they were little.
manner, place, then time
6.13 In clauses with more than one adverbial, the meaning of the adverbials can also affect their order. The usual order is adverbial of manner, then adverbial of place, then time adverbial.
They knelt quietly in the shadow of the rock.
I tried to reach you at home several times.
He was imprisoned in Cairo in January 1945.
Parents may complain that their child eats badly at meals.
The youngsters repeat this in unison at the beginning of each session.
However, if a clause contains an adverb of manner and an adverb of direction such as down, out, or home, the adverb of direction is usually put in front of the adverb of manner.
Lomax drove home fast.
I reached down slowly.
adverbials of the same type
6.14 Adverbials of different types can be placed together, sometimes separated by a comma, but adverbials of the same type, for example two adverbials of manner, are usually linked by conjunctions such as and and but, or structures such as rather than. For more information about how to link adverbials using conjunctions, see paragraph 8.188.
She sang clearly and beautifully.
They help to combat the problem at source, rather than superficially.
changing word order after adverbials
6.15 When clauses begin with an adverbial, the normal order of subject and verb is sometimes changed. For example, after adverbials of place, the verb usually comes before the subject. For more information about adverbials of place, see the section beginning at paragraph 6.53.
Next to it stood a pile of paper cups.
Beyond them lay the fields.
This also happens when broad negative adverbs such as hardly and barely, and some other negative words are placed at the beginning of the clause. For more information about these, see paragraphs 5.47 to 5.91.
Never in history had technology made such spectacular advances.
Seldom can there have been such a happy meeting.
Both of these cases are particularly common in written stories. A change in the normal order of subject and verb can occur after other adverbs, but only in poetry or old-fashioned English. The following example is from a Christmas carol written in 1843:
Brightly shone the moon that night, though the frost was cruel.
Adverbs
Types of adverb
6.16 There are several types of adverb:
adverbs of time, frequency, and duration, for example soon, often, and always. Because these are all related to time, they are dealt with fully in Chapter 4.
adverbs of place, for example around, downstairs, and underneath. These are dealt with in the section on place beginning at paragraph 6.53.
adverbs of manner, for example beautifully, carefully, and silently. See the section beginning at paragraph 6.36 for more information about these.
adverbs of degree, for example almost, badly, terribly, and well. See the section beginning at paragraph 6.45 for more information about these.
sentence connectors, for example consequently, furthermore, and however. These are dealt with in paragraphs 10.48 to 10.56.
sentence adverbs, for example alas, apparently, chiefly, and interestingly. See the section beginning at paragraph 9.79 for more information on these.
broad negative adverbs, for example barely, hardly, rarely, scarcely, and seldom. These are dealt with at paragraphs 5.80 to 5.87.
focusing adverbs, for example especially and only. These are dealt with in the section beginning at paragraph 9.64.
Adverb forms and meanings related to adjectives
-ly adverbs
6.17 Many adverbs are related to adjectives. The main relationships and rules of formation are explained below.
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. For example, the adverbs quietly and badly are formed by adding -ly to the adjectives quiet and bad.
Most of the adverbs formed in this way are adverbs of manner, so some people refer to adverbs of manner as -ly adverbs.
Sit there quietly, and listen to this music.
I didn’t play badly.
He reported accurately what they said.
He nodded and smiled warmly.
For more information about adjectives, see Chapter 2.
spelling
6.18 Some -ly adverbs have slightly different spellings from the adjectives they are related to, for example nastily, gently, terribly, academically, truly, and fully. For information about these adverbs, see the Reference Section.
6.19 Not all adverbs ending in -ly are adverbs of manner. Some are adverbs of degree, such as extremely and slightly: see the list at paragraph 6.45.
I enjoyed the course immensely.
Sales fell slightly last month.
A few are adverbs of time, duration, or frequency, such as presently, briefly, and weekly: see the lists of these in Chapter 4.
At 10.15 a.m. soldiers briefly opened fire again.
These allegations are currently being investigated by my legal team.
Others are adverbs of place, such as locally and internationally, linking adverbs such as consequently, or sentence adverbs such as actually. For lists of adverbs of place, see the section beginning at paragraph 6.53. For lists of sentence adverbs, see Chapter 9.
They live locally and they have never caused any bother.
These efforts have received little credit internationally.
They did not preach. Consequently, they reached a vastly wider audience.
There still remains something to say. Several things, actually.
adverb meaning
6.20 Most adverbs formed by adding -ly to an adjective have a similar meaning to the adjective, for example quietly and beautifully have similar meanings to quiet and beautiful.
She is thoughtful, quiet and controlled.
‘I’m going to do it,’ I said quietly.
His costumes are beautiful, a big improvement on the previous ones.
The girls had dressed more beautifully than ever, for him.
6.21 Some -ly adverbs have a different meaning from the meanings of their related adjectives. For example, hardly means not very much or almost not at all and is not used with any of the meanings of the adjective hard.
This has been a long hard day.
Her bedroom was so small she could hardly move in it.
Here is a list of adverbs ending in -ly that have a different meaning from the meanings of their related adjectives:
barely
hardly
lately
presently
scarcely
shortly
6.22 Some -ly adverbs are not related to adjectives, for example accordingly. Some are related to nouns, for example bodily, purposely, daily and weekly. For lists of these, see the Reference Section.
6.23 Adverbs ending in -ly are very rarely formed from some types of adjective:
most classifying adjectives, for example racist, eastern, female, urban, foreign, and available. See Chapter 2 for lists of classifying adjectives.
most colour adjectives, although -ly adverbs from these are occasionally found in works of literature.
The hills rise greenly to the deep-blue sky.
He lay still, staring blackly up at the ceiling.
some very common qualitative adjectives that refer to basic qualities:
big
fat
old
small
tall
tiny
wet
young
adjectives that already end in -ly, for example friendly, lively, cowardly, ugly, and silly.
most adjectives that end in -ed, such as frightened and surprised. See the Reference Section for a list of the common ones that do form -ly adverbs, such as excitedly and hurriedly.
same form as adjective: a fast car, drive fast
6.24 In some cases, an adverb has the same form as an adjective and is similar in meaning. For example, fast is an adverb in the sentence News travels fast and an adjective in the sentence She likes fast cars.
…a fast rail link from London to the Channel Tunnel.
The driver was driving too fast for the conditions.
In these cases, the adverb is usually placed immediately after the verb or object, and rarely in front of the verb.
alike
downtown
extra
far
fast
inside
long
next
outside
overseas
past
straight
through
Some words ending in -ly are both adverbs and adjectives, for example daily, monthly, and yearly. These relate to frequency and are explained in paragraph 4.120.
6.25 Several postdeterminers, including further, next, only, opposite, and same, have the same form as adverbs but no direct relation in meaning. Note that well is an adverb and adjective, but usually means not ill as an adjective, and with skill or success as an adverb.
He has done well.
two forms: dear/dearly, hard/hardly, etc.
6.26 Sometimes, two adverbs are related to the same adjective. One adverb has the same form as the adjective, and the other is formed by adding -ly.
He closed his eyes tight.
He closed his eyes tightly.
Failure may yet cost his country dear.
Holes in the road are a menace which costs this country dearly in lost man hours every year.
The German manufacturer was urging me to cut out the middle man and deal with him direct.
The trend in recent years has been to deal directly with the supplier.
Here is a list of common adverbs that have both these forms:
clear
clearly
close
closely
dear
dearly
deep
deeply
direct
directly
easy
easily
fine
finely
first
firstly
hard
hardly
high
highly
last
lastly
late
lately
thick
thickly
thin
thinly
tight
tightly
Note that the -ly adverb often has a different meaning from the adverb with the same form as the adjective,
The river was running high and swiftly.
I thought highly of the idea.
He has worked hard.
Border could hardly make himself heard above the din.
When the snake strikes, its mouth opens wide.
Closing dates for applications vary widely.
Note that, with some words that are adverbs and adjectives, the addition of -ly forms a new adverb and a new adjective, for example dead and deadly, low and lowly.
no adverb from adjective
6.27 Some adjectives do not form adverbs at all. These include the common qualitative adjectives listed in paragraph 6.23, such as big and old.
Here is a list of some more adjectives that do not form adverbs:
afraid
alive
alone
asleep
awake
content
difficult
drunk
foreign
good
hurt
ill
little
long
sorry
standard
Note that the adverbs relating to content and drunk are formed by adding -ly to the forms contented and drunken, thus giving contentedly and drunkenly.
USAGE NOTE
6.28 If there is no adverb related to an adjective, and you want to give additional information about an event or situation, you can often use a prepositional phrase.
In some cases, the prepositional phrase involves a noun that is related to the adjective. For example, there is no adverb related to the adjective difficult, but you can use the related noun difficulty in the prepositional phrase with difficulty instead.
He stood up slowly and with difficulty.
In other cases, for example with adjectives that end in -ly, a general noun such as way, manner, or fashion is used.
He walks in a funny way.
He greeted us in his usual friendly fashion.
Prepositional phrases may be used even if an adverb does exist, for example when you want to add more detailed information or to add emphasis.
She comforted the bereaved relatives in a dignified, compassionate and personalized manner.
At these extreme velocities, materials behave in a totally different manner from normal.
adverbs not related to adjectives
6.29 Some adverbs are not related to adjectives at all. This is especially true of adverbs of time and place. See Chapter 4 for adverbs of time, and the section beginning at paragraph 6.53 for adverbs of place.
It will soon be Christmas.
There are also some other adverbs that are not related to adjectives.
For a list of the common adverbs that are not related to adjectives, see the Reference Section.
Comparative and superlative adverbs
6.30 You may want to say how something happens or is done in relation to how it happens on a different occasion, or how it was done by someone or something else. You can do this by using adverbs in the comparative or superlative.
He began to speak more quickly.
This form of treatment is most commonly used in younger patients.
Most adverbs of manner (see paragraph 6.36) have comparatives and superlatives.
A few other adverbs also have comparatives and superlatives: some adverbs of time (early and late, see paragraph 4.71), frequency (often and frequently, see paragraph 4.114), duration (briefly, permanently, and long, see paragraph 4.123), and place (near, close, deep, high, far, and low, see paragraphs 6.88 and 6.60).
6.31 The forms and uses of comparative and superlative adverbs are generally similar to those of adjectives. For more information about comparatives and superlatives of adjectives, see paragraphs 2.103 to 2.122.
However, unlike adjectives, the comparative of an adverb is usually formed with more and the superlative with most, and not by adding -er and -est.
The people needed business skills so that they could manage themselves more effectively.
…the text that Professor Williams’s work most closely resembles.
Valium is most often prescribed as an anti-anxiety drug.
irregular forms
6.32 Some very common adverbs have comparatives and superlatives that are single words and not formed using more and most. Note that adverbs that have irregular comparatives also have irregular superlatives.
Well has the comparative better and the superlative best.
She would ask him later, when she knew him better.
I have to find out what I can do best.
Badly has the comparative worse and the superlative worst.
‘I don’t think the crowd helped her,’ Gordon admitted. ‘She played worse.’
The expedition from Mozambique fared worst.
Note that worse and worst are also the comparative and superlative of ill when it is an adverb or adjective.
6.33 Adverbs that have the same form as adjectives also have the same comparatives and superlatives as the adjectives. For example, fast has faster and fastest, and hard has harder and hardest. For a list of common adverbs that have the same form as adjectives, see paragraph 6.24.
They worked harder, they were more honest.
The winning blow is the one that strikes hardest.
This would enable claims to be dealt with faster.
This type of sugar dissolves fastest.
6.34 Some adverbs have comparatives and superlatives with more and most, but also have single-word comparatives and superlatives.
They can be built more quickly.
You probably learn quicker by having lessons.
Those women treated quickest were those most likely to die.
The American computer firm will be relying more heavily on its new Scottish plant.
It seems that the rights of soldiers weigh heavier than the rights of those killed.
The burden fell most heavily on Kanhai.
Illiteracy weighs heaviest on the groups who are already disadvantaged in other ways.
USAGE NOTE
6.35 The structures involving comparatives and superlatives are generally the same for adverbs as for adjectives:
the use of no and any with comparatives: see paragraph 2.163
He began to behave more and more erratically.
Omoro didn’t want to express it any more strongly.
the optional use of the with superlatives: see paragraph 2.117
His shoulders hurt the worst.
Old people work hardest.
the use of words like much or a little with comparatives and superlatives: see the section beginning at paragraph 2.157
The situation resolved itself much more easily than I had expected.
There the process progresses even more rapidly.
the use of than after comparatives: see paragraph 2.106
This class continues to grow more rapidly than any other group.
Prices have been rising faster than incomes.
You might know this better than me.
repeating comparatives to show changes in extent: see paragraph 2.161
He began to behave more and more erratically.
Adverbs of manner
adverbs of manner
6.36 You often want to say something about the way something is done or about the circumstances of an event or situation. The most common way of doing this is by using adverbs of manner. Adverbs of manner give more information about the way in which an event or action takes place.
He nodded and smiled warmly.
She accidentally shot herself in the foot.
how something is done: sing beautifully, walk briskly
6.37 Many adverbs of manner are used to describe the way in which something is done. For example, in the sentence He did it carefully, carefully means in a careful way.
They think, dress and live differently.
He acted very clumsily.
You must be able to speak fluently and correctly.
6.38 Here is a list of common -ly adverbs that describe the way in which something is done:
abruptly
accurately
awkwardly
badly
beautifully
brightly
brilliantly
briskly
carefully
carelessly
casually
cheaply
clearly
closely
clumsily
comfortably
consistently
conveniently
correctly
dangerously
delicately
differently
discreetly
distinctly
dramatically
easily
economically
effectively
efficiently
evenly
explicitly
faintly
faithfully
fiercely
finely
firmly
fluently
formally
frankly
freely
gently
gracefully
hastily
heavily
honestly
hurriedly
intently
meticulously
neatly
nicely
oddly
patiently
peacefully
peculiarly
perfectly
plainly
pleasantly
politely
poorly
professionally
properly
quietly
rapidly
readily
richly
rigidly
roughly
ruthlessly
securely
sensibly
sharply
silently
simply
smoothly
softly
solidly
specifically
splendidly
steadily
steeply
stiffly
strangely
subtly
superbly
swiftly
systematically
tenderly
thickly
thinly
thoroughly
thoughtfully
tightly
truthfully
uncomfortably
urgently
vaguely
vigorously
violently
vividly
voluntarily
warmly
widely
willingly
wonderfully
feelings and manner: smile happily, walk wearily
6.39 Adverbs formed from adjectives that describe people’s feelings, for example happily or nervously, indicate both the way in which something is done and the feelings of the person who does it.
For example, the sentence She laughed happily means both that she laughed in a happy way and that she was feeling happy.
We laughed and chatted happily together.
Gaskell got up wearily and headed for the stairs.
They looked anxiously at each other.
The children waited eagerly for their presents.
The children smiled shyly.
6.40 Here is a list of adverbs that describe the feelings of the person who does something as well as the way in which it is done:
angrily
anxiously
bitterly
boldly
calmly
cheerfully
confidently
desperately
eagerly
excitedly
furiously
gladly
gloomily
gratefully
happily
helplessly
hopefully
hopelessly
impatiently
miserably
nervously
passionately
proudly
reluctantly
sadly
shyly
sincerely
uncomfortably
uneasily
unhappily
wearily
circumstances: talk privately, work part-time
6.41 Adverbs of manner can also indicate the circumstances in which something is done, rather than how it is done. For example, in the sentence He spoke to me privately, privately means when no one else was present rather than in a private way.
I need to speak to you privately.
He had publicly called for an investigation of the entire school system.
Britain and France jointly suggested a plan in 1954.
I have undertaken all the enquiries personally.
6.42 Here is a list of adverbs that are used to show the circumstances in which an action takes place:
accidentally
alone
artificially
automatically
bodily
collectively
commercially
deliberately
directly
duly
first-class
full-time
illegally
independently
indirectly
individually
innocently
instinctively
involuntarily
jointly
legally
logically
mechanically
naturally
officially
openly
overtly
part-time
personally
politically
privately
publicly
regardless
retail
scientifically
secretly
solo
specially
symbolically
wholesale
forms
6.43 Most adverbs of manner are formed from qualitative adjectives, for example stupidly from stupid, and angrily from angry. For more information about the forms of adverbs, see paragraph 6.17.
USAGE NOTE
6.44 Instead of using an adverb of manner, you can sometimes use prepositional phrases or noun phrases to give more information about the manner or circumstances of an action.
‘Come here’, he said in a low voice.
I know I have to do it this way.
In some cases you may have to do this, because there is no adverb. See paragraph 6.23.
Adverbs of degree
6.45 When you want to give more information about the extent of an action or the degree to which an action is performed, you often use an adverb of degree.
I enjoyed the course immensely.
I had almost forgotten about the trip.
A change of one word can radically alter the meaning of a statement.
6.46 Here is a list of adverbs of degree:
absolutely
adequately
almost
altogether
amazingly
awfully
badly
completely
considerably
dearly
deeply
drastically
dreadfully
enormously
entirely
exceedingly
excessively
extensively
extraordinarily
extremely
fairly
fantastically
fully
greatly
half
hard
hugely
immensely
incredibly
intensely
just
largely
moderately
nearly
noticeably
outright
partly
perfectly
poorly
positively
powerfully
practically
pretty
profoundly
purely
quite
radically
rather
really
reasonably
remarkably
significantly
simply
slightly
somewhat
soundly
strongly
sufficiently
supremely
surprisingly
suspiciously
terribly
totally
tremendously
truly
unbelievably
utterly
very
virtually
well
wonderfully
from adjectives
6.47 Adverbs of degree are often formed from adjectives by adding -ly. Some are formed from qualitative adjectives, for example deeply, hugely, and strongly, and some from classifying adjectives, for example absolutely, perfectly, and utterly.
A few adverbs of degree are formed from postdeterminers, such as entirely.
See Chapter 2 for more information about types of adjectives.
position in clause
6.48 You can use adverbs of degree in the usual positions for adverbials.
I admired him greatly.
I greatly enjoyed working with them.
Yoga can greatly diminish stress levels.
However, you rarely use an adverb of degree at the beginning of a clause. For example, you do not usually say Greatly I admired him. For more information about placing adverbs at the beginning of a clause, see paragraph 9.70.
A few adverbs of degree are nearly always used in front of the main verb:
almost
largely
nearly
really
virtually
For example, you usually say He almost got there, not He got there almost.
This type of institution has largely disappeared now.
He really enjoyed talking about flying.
The result virtually ensures Scotland’s place in the finals.
Some adverbs of degree are almost always used after the main verb:
altogether
enormously
hard
outright
somewhat
tremendously
well
This was a different level of communication altogether.
The proposal was rejected outright.
I enjoyed the book enormously.
emphasizing adverbs
6.49 A group of adverbs of degree are called emphasizing adverbs. These are formed from emphasizing adjectives (see paragraph 2.36).
absolutely
completely
entirely
just
outright
perfectly
positively
purely
quite
really
simply
totally
truly
utterly
Note that the emphasizing adverb outright has the same form as an adjective, an adverb of manner, and an adverb of degree.
6.50 You use an emphasizing adverb such as absolutely, just, quite, or simply to add emphasis to the action described by a verb. Emphasizing adverbs usually come in front of verbs.
I quite agree.
I absolutely agree.
I just know I’m going to be late.
I simply adore this flat.
In a verb phrase, the emphasizing adverb comes after the auxiliary or modal and in front of the verb.
Someone had simply appeared.
I was absolutely amazed.
However, absolutely is occasionally used after verbs as well.
I agree absolutely with what Geoffrey has said.
For other uses of emphasizing adverbs, see paragraphs 9.62 to 9.63.
adverbs of degree in front of other adverbs: very carefully, fairly easily
6.51 You can use some adverbs of degree such as very and rather in front of other adverbs. When adverbs of degree are used like this they are called submodifying adverbs.
They can also be used in front of adjectives; this use is explained in paragraphs 2.140 to 2.168, where lists of submodifying adverbs and their meanings are also given.
He prepared his speech very carefully.
He was having to work awfully hard.
Things changed really dramatically.
We get on extremely well with our neighbours.
We were able to hear everything pretty clearly.
The paper disintegrated fairly easily.
He dressed rather formally.
Every child reacts somewhat differently.
Note that moderately and reasonably are mainly used in front of adverbs that do not end in -ly.
He works reasonably hard.
A few adverbs of degree can be used as in this way with comparatives: see the section beginning at paragraph 2.157.
This could all be done very much more quickly.
I thanked him again, even more profusely than before.
I hope you can see slightly more clearly what is going on.
Note that still can also be placed after the comparative.
They’re doing better in some respects now. Of course they’ve got to do better still.
other adverbs of degree
6.52 There are some special adverbs of degree. These include much, which is used as an adverb of degree in negative clauses, and in reported questions after how.
She was difficult as a child and hasn’t changed much.
These definitions do not help much.
Have you told him how much you love him?
Very much is also used in a similar way.
She is charming. We like her very much.
The comparative adverbs better and worse and the superlative adverbs best and worst are also adverbs of degree.
You know him better than anyone else.
It is the land itself which suffers worst.
More and less can be used as comparative adverbs of degree.
Her tears frightened him more than anything that had ever happened to him before.
The ground heats up less there.
Most and least can be used as superlative adverbs of degree.
She gave me the opportunity to do what I wanted to do most.
They staged some of his least known operas.
Comparative adverbs and superlative adverbs are explained in the section beginning at paragraph 6.30.
The noun phrases a bit, a great deal, a little, and a lot are also used as adverbs of degree.
I don’t like this a bit.
The situation’s changed a great deal since then.
Adverbs of place
6.53 Adverbs are also used after verbs to give information about place.
No birds or animals came near.
Seagulls were circling overhead.
In many cases the same word can be used as a preposition and as an adverb.
The limb was severed below the elbow.
This information is summarized below.
adverbs showing position
6.54 Here is a list of words that are used as adverbs to show position. Note that some adverbs consist of more than one word, for example, out of doors.
abroad
ahead
aloft
ashore
away
close to
downstairs
downstream
downtown
downwind
eastward
halfway
here
indoors
inland
midway
nearby
next door
northward
offshore
outdoors
out of doors
overhead
overseas
southward
there
underfoot
underground
underwater
upstairs
upstream
uptown
upwind
westward
yonder (American)
The common adverbs of place that are used as adverbs and as prepositions are sometimes called adverb particles or adverbial particles. The following words are used as adverbs to show position, and can also be used as prepositions:
aboard
about
above
alongside
behind
below
beneath
beside
beyond
close by
down
in
in between
inside
near
off
opposite
outside
over
round
throughout
underneath
up
6.55 An adverb can be used alone after a verb to show place or direction.
The young men hated working underground.
The engine droned on as we flew northward.
You can also use an adverb showing place or direction when it is clear from the context what place or direction you are referring to. For example, you may have mentioned the place earlier, or the adverb may refer to your own location, or to the location of the person or thing being talked about.
He moved to Portugal, and it was there where he learnt to do the samba.
She walked away and my mother stood in the middle of the road, watching.
They spent the autumn of 1855 in Japan. It was here that Hilary wrote her first novel.
USAGE NOTE
6.56 A few adverbs of position are used to show the area in which a situation exists:
globally
internationally
locally
nationally
universally
widely
worldwide
Everything we used was bought locally.
Unlike most other adverbs of position, they cannot be used after be to state the position of something.
USAGE NOTE
6.57 A few other adverbs are used to show where two or more people or things are in relation to each other: together, apart, side by side and abreast.
All the villagers and visitors would sit together round the fire.
A figure stood at the window holding the curtains apart.
adverbs of position with a following adverbial
6.58 Some adverbs of position are normally followed by another adverbial of position. This is particularly common when the verb be is used as a main verb.
Barbara’s down at the cottage.
Adam was halfway up the stairs.
Out on the quiet surface of the river, something moved.
She is up in her own bedroom.
deep, far, high, low
6.59 The adverbs deep, far, high, and low, which indicate distance as well as position, are also usually followed by another adverbial of position, or are modified or qualified in some other way.
Many of the eggs remain buried deep among the sand grains.
One plane, flying very low, swept back and forth.
Deep down, far away, high up, and low down are often used instead of the adverbs on their own.
The window was high up, miles above the rocks.
Sita scraped a shallow cavity low down in the wall.
Far and far away are often qualified by a prepositional phrase beginning with from.
I was standing far away from the ball.
We lived far from the nearest village.
adverbs of position: comparatives and superlatives
6.60 Some adverbs have comparative and superlative forms. The superlative form is not used to show position, but to specify which of several things you are talking about.
Deeper, further (or farther), higher, and lower are usually followed by a prepositional phrase showing position.
Further along the beach, a thin trickle of smoke was climbing into the sky.
The beans are a bit higher on the stalk this year.
Nearer can be used as an adverb as well as a preposition (see paragraph 6.88). Closer can only be used as an adverb.
The hills were nearer now.
Thousands of tourists stood watching or milled around trying to get closer.
anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere
6.61 There are four indefinite adverbs of position: anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, and somewhere. They are used to talk about a position that is not definite or that is very general.
I dropped my cigar somewhere round here.
I thought I’d seen you somewhere.
There were bicycles everywhere.
No-one can find Howard or Barbara anywhere.
Nowhere makes a clause negative.
There was nowhere to hide.
If nowhere is at the beginning of a clause, the subject of the verb must be placed after an auxiliary or a form of be or have.
Nowhere have I seen any serious mention of this.
Nowhere are they overwhelmingly numerous.
American English has informal variants for all four of these adverbs in which the word place replaces -where. These can be written as one or two words.
Haven’t you got some place to go?
Video-conferencing can connect anyone, anytime, anyplace.
adding information
6.62 There are several structures you can use with indefinite place adverbs in order to give more information. You can use:
an adverb of place:
I would like to work somewhere abroad.
We’re certainly nowhere near.
an adjective:
We could go to Majorca if you want somewhere lively.
Are you going somewhere nice?
a prepositional phrase:
The waiter wasn’t anywhere in sight.
In 1917, Kollontai was the only woman in any government anywhere in the world.
or a to-infinitive clause:
We mentioned that we were looking for somewhere to live.
I wanted to have somewhere to put it.
You can also use a relative clause. Note that the relative pronoun is usually omitted.
Was there anywhere you wanted to go?
Everywhere I went, people were angry or suspicious.
different or additional places
6.63 Else is used after the indefinite place adverb to indicate a different or additional place.
We could hold the meeting somewhere else.
More people die in bed than anywhere else.
Elsewhere can be used instead of somewhere else.
Gwen sat next to the window. The other girls had found seats elsewhere.
6.64 Everywhere and anywhere can also be used as the subjects of verbs, especially be.
Sometimes I feel that anywhere, just anywhere, would be better than this.
I looked around for a shop, but everywhere was closed.
Destinations and directions
adverbs indicating destinations and targets
6.65 Adverbs can be used to indicate destinations and targets.
I have expected you, she said, inviting him inside.
No birds or animals came near.
The following adverbs are used to indicate destinations or targets:
aboard
abroad
ashore
close
downstairs
downtown
heavenward
home
homeward
in
indoors
inland
inside
inward
inwards
near
next door
outdoors
out of doors
outside
overseas
skyward
there
underground
upstairs
uptown
The comparative forms nearer and closer are more commonly used than near or close.
Come nearer.
Deep, far, high, and low are also used as adverbs showing a destination or target but only when they are modified in some other way.
The dancers sprang high into the air brandishing their spears.
The comparative forms deeper, further (or farther), higher, and lower are also used, and so is the superlative form furthest (or farthest). These do not have to be modified in any way.
We left the waterfall and climbed higher.
People have to trek further and further.
relative direction
6.66 Adverbs can be used to show direction in relation to the particular position of the person or thing you are talking about. For more information on phrasal verbs, see paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116.
Go north from Leicester Square up Wardour Street.
Don’t look down.
…the part of the engine that was spinning around.
Mrs James gave a little cry and hurried on.
They grabbed him and pulled him backwards.
He turned left and began strolling slowly down the street.
They can also show the direction in which someone or something is facing in relation to the front of the place they are in.
The seats face forward.
The following adverbs are used to show direction of this sort:
ahead
along
back
backward
backwards
forward
forwards
left
on
onward
right
sideways
~
anti-clockwise
around
clockwise
counterclockwise (American)
down
downward
downwards
east
eastward
eastwards
north
northward
northwards
north-east
north-west
south
southward
southwards
south-east
south-west
round
up
upward
upwards
west
westward
westwards
movement in several directions
6.67 The adverbs round, about, and around show movement in several directions within a place.
Stop rushing about!
They won’t want anyone else trampling around.
The following adverbial expressions are used to talk about repeated movement in different directions:
back and forth
backwards and forwards
from side to side
in and out
round and round
to and fro
up and down
At other times she would pace up and down outside the trailer.
Burke was walking back and forth as he spoke.
movement away
6.68 The following adverbs are used to talk about movement away from someone or something:
aside
away
off
out
outward
The farmer just laughed and rode away.
It took just one tug to pull them out.
The adverb apart indicates that two or more things move away from each other.
I rushed in and tried to pull the dogs apart.
movement along a path
6.69 The following adverbs are used to talk about movement along a road, path, or line:
alongside
beside
downhill
downstream
uphill
upstream
Going downhill was easy.
It wasn’t the moving that kept me warm; it was the effort of pushing Daisy uphill.
movement across or past something
6.70 The following adverbs are used to talk about movement across or past something:
across
by
over
overhead
past
round
through
There’s an aircraft coming over.
‘Where are you going?’ demanded Miss Craig as Florrie rushed by.
indefinite direction: somewhere, everywhere, nowhere, etc.
6.71 The indefinite place adverbs are used to talk about a destination or direction when you want to be more general or vague.
He went off somewhere for a shooting weekend.
Dust blew everywhere, swirling over dry caked mountains.
There was hardly anywhere to go.
Can’t you play elsewhere?
Nowhere is mainly used metaphorically, to indicate lack of progress.
They were getting nowhere and had other things to do.
See paragraph 6.61 for more information on these indefinite adverbs.
adverbs after nouns: the man opposite, the road south
6.72 Like prepositional phrases, adverbs can also be placed after nouns.
They watched him from the terrace above.
The man opposite got up.
People everywhere are becoming aware of the problem.
We took the road south.
Prepositions
6.73 This section explains how prepositional phrases are used to show the place where an action occurs, the place where someone or something is, the place they are going to or coming from, or the direction they are moving in.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its object, which is nearly always a noun.
The most basic use of most prepositions is to indicate position and direction.
He fumbled in his pocket. On your left is the river.
Why did he not drive to Valence?
The voice was coming from my apartment.
I ran inside and bounded up the stairs.
6.74 A preposition is a word that allows you to say more about a thing or an action, because you can choose any appropriate noun after it as its object. Most prepositions are single words, although there are some that consist of more than one word, such as out of and in between.
Here is a list of common one-word prepositions that are used to talk about place or destination:
about
above
across
along
alongside
among
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
by
down
from
in
inside
into
near
off
on
opposite
outside
over
past
round
through
throughout
to
toward (Am)
towards
under
underneath
up
within
Note that toward and towards are both used in American English, with no difference in meaning.
Here is a list of prepositions that consist of more than one word and that are used to talk about place or destination:
across from
ahead of
all over
away from
close by
close to
in between
in front of
near to
next to
on top of
out of
6.75 Many prepositions can also be adverbs; that is, they can be used without an object. See paragraph 6.54 for a list of these.
BE CAREFUL
6.76 Because English has a large number of prepositions, some of them, such as beside, by, near, and next to, are very close in meaning. Other prepositions, for example at and in, have several different meanings. The meaning and usage of prepositions should be checked where possible in a dictionary.
6.77 Prepositions have an object, which comes after the preposition.
The switch is by the door.
Look behind you, Willie!
Note that if a personal pronoun is used as the object of a preposition, it must be the object pronoun: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
Prepositions also combine with complex noun phrases to describe places in some detail. See paragraph 2.280 for information on the use of of in noun phrases.
I stood alone in the middle of the yard.
He was sitting towards the end of the room.
He went to the back of the store.
Position of prepositional phrases
after verbs showing position
6.78 Prepositional phrases are most commonly used after verbs. They are used after verbs that indicate position in order to specify where something is.
She lives in Newcastle.
An old piano stood in the corner of the room.
You ought to stay out of the sun.
The following verbs are often used to show position:
be
belong
hang
lie
live
remain
sit
be situated
stand
stay
After verbs indicating movement
6.79 Prepositional phrases are used after verbs indicating movement to specify the direction of movement.
I went into the kitchen and began to make the dinner.
Mrs Kaul was leading him to his seat.
The others burst from their tents.
The storm had uprooted trees from the ground.
He took her to Edinburgh.
after verbs indicating activities
6.80 Prepositional phrases are used after verbs indicating activities to specify where an activity takes place.
…children playing in the street.
The meeting was held at a community centre in Logan Heights.
He was practising high jumps in the garden.
6.81 Prepositional phrases usually come at the end of the clause, after the verb, or after the object of the verb if there is one.
We landed at a small airport.
We put the children’s toys in a big box.
at the beginning of a clause: for emphasis or contrast
6.82 If you want to focus on the prepositional phrase for emphasis or contrast, it can be placed at the beginning of the clause. This ordering is mainly used in descriptive writing or reports.
In the garden everything was peaceful.
At the top of the tree was a brown cat.
at the beginning of a clause: verb before subject
6.83 If you put a prepositional phrase that refers to the position of something at the beginning of the clause when you are using a verb with no object, the normal word order after it is often changed, and the verb is placed before the subject.
On the ceiling hung dustpans and brushes.
Inside the box lie the group’s US mining assets.
Beyond them lay the fields.
If you are using be as a main verb, the verb always comes before the subject; so, for example, you cannot say Under her chin a colossal brooch was.
Under her chin was a colossal brooch.
Next to it is a different sign which says simply Beware.
Alongside him will be Mr Mitchell Fromstein.
Showing position
6.84 The prepositional phrases in the following examples show the place where an action occurs, or the place where someone or something is.
The children shouted, waving leafy branches above their heads.
The whole play takes place at a beach club.
Two minutes later we were safely inside the taxi.
He stood near the door.
She kept his picture on her bedside table.
prepositions showing position
6.85 The following prepositions are used to show position:
aboard
about
above
across
against
ahead of
all over
along
alongside
amidst
among
around
astride
at
away from
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
by
close by
close to
down
in
in between
in front of
inside
near
near to
next to
off
on
on top of
opposite
out of
outside
past
through
under
underneath
up
upon
with
within
USAGE NOTE
6.86 Some prepositions are only used with a restricted group of nouns.
For example, aboard is used with a noun referring to a form of transport, such as ship, plane, train, or bus, or with the name of a particular ship, the flight number for a particular plane journey, and so on.
There’s something terribly wrong aboard this ship, Dr Marlowe.
More than 1500 people died aboard the Titanic.
…getting aboard that flight to Rome.
He climbed aboard a truck.
Here is a list of nouns that you use with aboard to indicate position:
aircraft carrier
boat
bus
coach
ferry
jet
plane
rocket
ship
sled (American)
sledge
space shuttle
train
trawler
truck
wagon
yacht
Astride is mainly used to say that a person has one leg on each side of something, usually sitting on it or riding it.
He whipped out a chair and sat astride it.
He spotted a man sitting astride a horse.
When before is used to show position, the object is usually a person or group of people.
Leading representatives were interviewed before a live television audience.
He appeared before a disciplinary committee.
All over usually has a large or indefinite area as its object.
Through the site, thousands of people all over the world are being reunited with old friends.
There were pieces of ship all over the place.
USAGE NOTE
6.87 Some prepositions have several meanings. For example, on can be used to say that someone or something is resting on a horizontal surface or is attached to something, or that someone’s place of work is an area such as a farm or a building site.
The phone was on the floor in the hallway.
I lowered myself down on a rope.
My father worked on a farm.
prepositions with comparative forms
6.88 Near, near to, and close to have comparative forms that can also be used as prepositions.
We’re moving nearer my parents.
Venus is much nearer to the Sun than the Earth.
The judge’s bench was closer to me than Ruchell’s chair.
more specific position
6.89 If you want to say more exactly which part of the other thing an object is nearest to, or exactly which part of an area or room it is in, you can use one of the following prepositions: at, by, in, near, on, round. To and towards, usually used to indicate direction, are used to express position in a more approximate way.
The objects of the prepositions are nouns referring to parts of an object or place, such as top, bottom, and edge. Here is a list of words that are used to talk about parts of an object or place:
back
bottom
edge
end
front
left
middle
right
side
top
~
east
north
north-east
north-west
south
south-east
south-west
west
~
bankside
bedside
dockside
graveside
hillside
kerbside
lakeside
mountainside
poolside
quayside
ringside
roadside
seaside
waterside
Note that the compound direction prepositions (northeast, southwest, etc.) may be spelled either with or without a hyphen in British English. They are hardly ever spelled with a hyphen in American English.
When the place that you are referring to is obvious or has been stated earlier, you use the nouns in the singular with the determiner the.
I ran inside and bounded up the stairs. Wendy was standing at the top.
He was sitting towards the rear.
To the north are the main gardens.
We found him sitting by the fireside.
Other determiners, for example this and each, are used with nouns such as side, end, and edge, because an object or place may have several sides, ends, or edges.
Loosen the two screws at each end of the fuse.
Standing on either side of him were two younger men.
If the person or thing has been mentioned or is obvious, a possessive determiner can be used.
…a doll that turns brown in the sun, except for under its swimsuit.
There was a gate on our left.
6.90 Note that two- or three-word prepositions that include the word of are more specific because of can be followed by any noun.
She turned and rushed out of the room.
There was a man standing in front of me.
My sister started piling the books on top of each other.
specific distances
6.91 The place where an action occurs, or where someone or something is, can also be shown by stating its distance from another object or place.
You mention the actual distance before a prepositional phrase with from or away from.
Here he sat on the terrace a few feet from the roaring traffic.
The ball swerved two feet away from her.
Distance is also expressed in terms of the time taken to travel it.
My house is only 20 minutes from where I work.
They lived only two or three days away from Juffure.
The method of travelling can be stated to be even more precise.
It is less than an hour’s drive from here.
It’s about five minutes’ walk from the bus stop.
showing position and distance
6.92 To show both where something is and how far from another object or place it is, the distance is stated before the following prepositions:
above
along
behind
below
beneath
beyond
down
inside
outside
past
under
up
The volcano is only a few hundred metres below sea level.
The distance can also be stated before prepositional phrases including left and right or points of the compass such as north and south-east.
We lived forty miles to the east of Ottawa.
Showing direction
6.93 The prepositional phrases in the following examples show the place that someone or something is going to, or the place that they are moving towards.
I’m going with her to Australia.
They jumped into the water.
He saw his mother running towards him.
He screwed the lid tightly onto the top of the jar.
She stuck her knitting needles into a ball of wool.
prepositions used
6.94 The following prepositions are used to show destinations and targets:
aboard
all over
along
alongside
around
at
away from
beside
down
from
inside
into
near
off
onto
out of
round
to
toward (American)
towards
up
Note that onto is sometimes written as two words.
The bird hopped up on to a higher branch.
In American English and some varieties of British English, out is used as a preposition without of to show direction.
He walked out the door for the last time.
The prepositional phrases to the left and to the right are also used to indicate direction, from your own viewpoint or that of someone else. See paragraph 6.96.
USAGE NOTE
6.95 There are some restrictions in the choice of preposition.
At is not usually used to show the place that the subject of the verb is moving to or towards. It is used to show what someone is looking at, or what they cause an object to move towards.
They were staring at a garage roof.
Supporters threw petals at his car.
After is used to show that someone or something is following another moving person or thing, or is moving in the same direction but behind them.
He hurried after his men.
…dragging the sacks after us along the ground.
direction relative to the front
6.96 You use the prepositional phrases to the left and to the right to say which direction someone or something is moving in relation to the direction they are facing.
They turned to the left and drove away.
several directions
6.97 The prepositions about, round, around, and all over are used to show movement in several directions within a place.
I wandered round the garden.
She jumped around the room in front of the children as she acted out her story.
The boys began climbing all over the ship.
Round is not used as a preposition in American English; around is always used instead.
starting point
6.98 Prepositional phrases show the place or object that is the starting point of a movement.
The following prepositions are used: away from, from, off, and out of.
The coffee was sent up by the caterer from the kitchens below.
She turned and rushed out of the room.
He took his hand off her arm.
from before prepositions and adverbs
6.99 From is also used before another preposition or before some adverbs to talk about the starting point of a movement.
I had taken his drinking bowl from beneath the kitchen table.
…goods imported from abroad.
Thomas had stopped bringing his lunch from home.
From is used before the following adverbs:
above
abroad
anywhere
behind
below
beneath
downstairs
elsewhere
everywhere
here
home
inside
next door
nowhere
outside
overseas
somewhere
there
underneath
upstairs
Prepositional phrases after nouns
6.100 As well as being used after verbs, prepositional phrases can be used after nouns to give information about place.
The muscles below Peter’s knees were beginning to ache a little.
The chestnut trees in the back garden were a blazing orange.
They stood and watched the boats on the river.
…the clock in her bedroom.
…the low wall round the garden.
…the black shapeless masses to the left and right of the road.
6.101 Prepositional phrases can be added after roads, routes, and so on, to specify them by indicating their destination or direction.
…the main road from Paris to Marseilles.
…the road between the camp and the hospital.
…the road through the canyon.
Similarly, doors, entrances, and so on can be specified by adding prepositional phrases indicating where you get to by going through them.
He opened the door to his room.
…at the entrance to the library.
Prepositional phrases are also used after nouns to say where someone or something comes from.
…a veterinary officer from Singapore.
…an engineer from Hertfordshire.
Other uses of prepositional phrases
6.102 Prepositions are often used to talk about things other than place as well, for example to talk about a time, a way of doing something, or a feeling or quality. The following paragraphs from 6.103 to 6.110 describe these uses briefly, and give cross references to fuller explanations elsewhere.
The following prepositions are only or mainly used to indicate things other than place:
after
as
despite
during
except
for
like
of
since
until
referring to time
6.103 Although the main use of prepositional phrases is to talk about position or direction, they are also used to refer to time.
I’ll see you on Monday.
They are expecting to announce the sale within the next few days.
The use of prepositions to talk about time is explained in paragraphs 4.100 to 4.108.
referring to the way something is done
6.104 Prepositional phrases are also used to say something more about the way in which an action was performed, or the way in which it should be done.
‘Oh yes,’ Etta sneered in an offensive way.
A bird can change direction by dipping one wing and lifting the other.
He brushed back his hair with his hand.
Prepositional phrases such as on foot or by bus can be used to talk about a method of travelling.
I usually go to work on foot.
I travelled home by bus.
The use of adverbs to talk about the way things are done is explained in the section beginning at paragraph 6.36.
6.105 You can also use prepositional phrases to give more information about the feelings of the person performing the action.
Fanny saw with amazement that the letter was addressed to herself.
like and as in comparison
6.106 You can use the preposition like to show that someone or something behaves in a similar way to someone or something else.
She treated me like a servant.
She shuffled like an old lady.
There is more information about comparison in general in the section beginning at paragraph 2.103.
6.107 You can also use like and as to say that someone or something is treated in a similar way to someone or something else. The noun phrase after like or as describes the person or thing affected by the action, not the person or thing doing the action.
My parents dressed me like a little doll.
Their parents continue to treat them as children.
She treated her more like a daughter than a companion.
You can also use expressions such as like this or like that to refer to a particular manner of doing something.
If you’re going to behave like this, the best thing you can do is to go back to bed.
How dare you speak to me like that?
The use of like and as in subordinate clauses is explained in paragraphs 8.78 to 8.80.
6.108 You can say that one way of doing something has as much of a quality as another way of doing something, by using as followed by an adverb followed by another as. The second as is followed by a noun phrase, a pronoun, an adverbial, or a clause.
The company has not grown as quickly as many of its rivals.
She wanted someone to talk to as badly as I did.
circumstances of an action
6.109 You use prepositional phrases to say something about the circumstances of an action.
‘No,’ she said with a defiant look.
…struggling to establish democracy under adverse conditions.
reason, cause, or purpose
6.110 Prepositional phrases can also be used to say something about the reason for an action, or the cause or purpose of it.
In 1923, the Prime Minister resigned because of ill health.
He was dying of pneumonia.
As is used to show the function or purpose of something.
He worked as a truck driver.
During the war they used the theatre as a warehouse.
Prepositions used with verbs
in phrasal verbs
6.111 Some verbs always have a prepositional phrase after them in particular meanings. They are called phrasal verbs, and information about them can be found in paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116.
She sailed through her exams.
What are you getting at?
verbs with optional prepositional phrases
6.112 Some verbs can have a prepositional phrase instead of a direct object. For more information on these verbs, see paragraph 3.10.
The Polish Army fought the Germans for nearly five weeks.
She was fighting against history.
We climbed the mountain.
I climbed up the tree.
indirect objects of verbs with two objects
6.113 A prepositional phrase is used as an indirect object when the indirect object comes after the direct object.
For information on verbs with two objects, see paragraphs 3.73 to 3.82.
If the action described by the verb involves the transfer of something from one person or thing to another, the preposition to is used.
I passed the letter to my husband.
The recovered animals will be given to zoos.
If the action involves a person doing something for the benefit of another person, the preposition for is used.
She left a note for her on the table.
with reciprocal verbs
6.114 Some reciprocal verbs require a prepositional phrase when a second noun phrase is mentioned.
For information on reciprocal verbs, see paragraphs 3.68 to 3.72.
Our return coincided with the arrival of bad weather.
She has refused to cooperate with investigators.
with passive verbs
6.115 Prepositional phrases are used after verbs in the passive.
Ninety men were cut off by storms.
Moisture is drawn out with salt.
The use of prepositional phrases after passive verbs is explained in paragraphs 9.14 to 9.16.
position of prepositional phrases and adverbs after verbs
6.116 When verbs are followed by prepositional phrases and adverbs, a long prepositional phrase is usually placed after the adverb.
He listened calmly to the report of his aides.
A short prepositional phrase can come before or after the adverb.
The women shouted at me savagely.
Miss Burns looked calmly at Marianne.
Prepositional phrases after nouns and adjectives
6.117 Prepositional phrases are sometimes used after nouns and adjectives to describe the subject or object of a clause rather than the manner of an action or situation. See the section beginning at paragraph 2.275 for more information.
…a girl in a dark grey dress.
…a man with a quick temper.
particular prepositions after nouns and adjectives
6.118 Particular prepositions are used after some nouns and adjectives when you are adding information. See paragraphs 2.45 to 2.50 and 2.287 to 2.290.
My respect for her is absolutely enormous.
Women’s tennis puts an emphasis on technique, not strength.
He is responsible for pursuing the claim.
comparisons with than and like
6.119 A prepositional phrase with than often shows the person or thing that is the basis of a comparison.
He was smarter than you.
She was more refined than her husband.
For more information on comparisons, see the section beginning at paragraph 2.103.
The preposition like is used to show that someone or something is similar to someone or something else, without comparing any specific quality.
The British forces are like permanent tourists.
We need many more people like these.
of
6.120 Of is used in prepositional phrases after any noun to indicate various relationships between one noun phrase and another, especially belonging, possession, and connection. It can be used to state what something is, what it contains, what it is made from, or how much of it there is.
He was a member of the golf club.
She’s a friend of Stephen’s.
…the Mayor of Moscow.
Extended meanings of prepositions
6.121 The uses of prepositional phrases to express time and manner are really extended or metaphorical uses that cover a wide range of prepositions and are part of a metaphor that affects many other aspects of language as well. For example, when you talk about approaching a point in time, a short stretch of time, and so on, you are using words that refer to space to talk about time.
However, there are also extended meanings that apply only to small groups of prepositions, or sometimes only to individual prepositions.
For example, in basically indicates position inside a container.
What’s that in your bag?
It will end up in the dustbin.
However, it is often used with reference to areas rather than containers.
Emma sat in an armchair with her legs crossed.
Then we were told what had happened in Sheffield.
In is also used to talk about relative position.
We had to do something in the centre of the town to attract visitors.
However, in is also used in ways that extend its meaning further away from physical position. For example, it can be used to say that someone is involved in a particular situation, group, or activity.
They were in no danger.
The child was in trouble with the police.
This government won’t be in power for ever.
Mr Matthews has remained in office but the island has no Parliament.
It can show inclusion in a more abstract way.
Some of her early Hollywood experiences were used in her 1923 film, Mary of the Movies.
In any book, there is a moral purpose.
It can also indicate that something has reached a particular stage, or appears in a particular way.
The first primroses are in flower.
Her hair was in pigtails over either shoulder.
A few other prepositions with a basic meaning relating to containers are used in similar ways: for example within, into, out of.
Anything within reason should be considered.
When we get those men into the police force, they are going to be real heroes.
Heroines who were considered attractive by earlier generations now seem hopelessly out of touch.
Other ways of giving information about place
noun phrases referring to place: place names
6.122 Some verbs of position and movement are followed by noun phrases referring to places. These are described in paragraph 3.21.
Peel approached the building.
6.123 Instead of using a noun phrase to refer to a place, you can use the name of the place.
This great block of land became Antarctica.
…an island roughly the size of Martha’s Vineyard.
Her work is on show at the National Museum of Film and Photography in Bradford.
verbs after place names
6.124 Most place names are singular nouns, although some look like plural nouns, for example The Netherlands. Some place names, for example those referring to groups of islands or mountains, are plural nouns. Verbs used with place names follow the normal rules, so a singular verb form is used with a singular noun and a plural verb form with a plural noun.
Milan is a very interesting city.
The Andes split the country down the middle.
place names used for talking about people
6.125 The name of a place can be used to talk about the people who live there. If the place name is a singular noun, a singular verb form is still used, even though the noun is being used to refer to a plural concept.
Europe was sick of war.
The name of a country or its capital city is often used to talk about the government of that country.
Britain and France jointly suggested a plan.
Washington put a great deal of pressure on Tokyo.
place names used for talking about events
6.126 Place names are also used to talk about a well-known historical or recent event that occurred there, such as a battle, a disaster, an international sports competition, a scandal, or an important political meeting.
After Waterloo, trade and industry surged again.
What was the effect of Chernobyl on British agriculture?
…the chain of events that led to Watergate.
place names used as modifiers before nouns
6.127 Many place names can be used as modifiers, to show where things come from or are characteristic of, as well as where things are.
…a London hotel.
…the New Zealand rugby team.
If a place name begins with the, you omit it when you use the name as a modifier.
…Arctic explorers.
She has a Midlands accent.
Note that the names of continents and of many countries cannot be used as modifiers. Instead, you use classifying adjectives such as African and Italian.