Modern Italian Grammar: A Practical Guide, Third Edition (2013)

Part B. Functions

IV. Putting in context

30. Combining messages

30.1 Introduction

Many of the early sections in Modern Italian Grammar show how to get your message across: communicating information, completing a transaction, expressing a feeling or emotion.

In this section of the book, ‘Putting in context’ (Chapters 30–39), we deal with the various ways of conveying a more complex message, of combining more than one message, and of putting our message in a context. The examples chosen are taken from various sources including the press and contemporary literature.

Some chapters look at specific contexts, such as expressing certainty (Chapter 32), purpose (Chapter 33), reason (Chapter 34), result (Chapter 35), place and manner (Chapter 37), condition and hypothesis (Chapter 38), and reservation and concession (Chapter 39). Chapter 31 illustrates time relationships in the context of relating or reporting an event or action, while Chapter 36 illustrates sentences where there is a specific time reference, such as mentre, quando, prima or dopo.

In this introductory chapter ‘Combining messages’, we look at some general points that need to be borne in mind when combining messages: for example, the structure of the sentence and the tenses and moods of the verbs used. When the message is more complex, the sentence structure also tends to become more complex. The possible sentence structures can be summarised in two broad categories: sentences where there are two or more clauses of equal weight (coordinated clauses), and sentences where there is a main clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.

30.2 Combining statements of equal importance

30.2.1 Separate sentences

Two statements of equal importance are conveyed by using two clauses or groups of words of equal weight. These can be completely separate sentences:

Non è essenziale l'ammorbidente. I detersivi oggi sono più delicati.

It's not essential to use softener. Detergents today are more delicate.

30.2.2 Basic coordinated clauses

Alternatively they can be separate clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions or other elements (see 5.2) such as e ‘and’, ma ‘but’, in which case they are known as coordinated clauses:

I detersivi oggi sono più delicati e non induriscono i tessuti.

Today's detergents are more delicate and they don't make fabrics harsh.

Lavo quasi tutto in lavatrice ma lavo le maglie di lana a mano.

I wash almost everything in the washing machine but I wash wool sweaters by hand.

30.2.3 Common coordinating elements

Other common coordinating elements, with varying meanings, include:

Non ho i soldi per andare in vacanza e inoltre non ho neanche il tempo per andarci.

I haven't got the money to go on holiday and besides I don't even have the time to go.

Non l'ho comprato né lo voglio.

I haven't bought it nor do I want it.

Possiamo andare a vedere i templi oppure se preferisci andiamo al mare.

We can go to see the temples or if you prefer we'll go to the seaside.

Elements such as anche or pure are normally attached to a specific element in the sentence, for example noun or pronoun:

La lavatrice è rotta, la lavastoviglie è rotta, anche il frigo è rotto.

The washing machine's broken, the dishwasher's broken, even the fridge is broken.

I miei cugini vanno in Sicilia; anch'io voglio andarci.

My cousins are going to Sicily: I want to go too.

30.2.4 Contrasts

Coordinating conjunctions and elements that express contrast (adversative conjunctions) include:

Pensavo che avrei avuto difficoltà a seguire i corsi in inglese. Invece non ho avuto problemi.

I thought I would find it difficult to follow courses in English. But I didn't have any problems.

A Milano ho trovato subito un posto mentre il mio ragazzo ha avuto un po' di difficoltà.

In Milan I found a job straightaway while my boyfriend had a bit of difficulty.

Bettina si impegnava al massimo negli studi. Però i professori le davano sempre voti alquanto bassi.

Bettina studied as hard as she could. However her lecturers always gave her rather low marks.

Piuttosto che aumentare il numero di canali televisivi, penso che sia il caso di aumentare la qualità dei programmi televisivi già esistenti.

Rather than increasing the number of TV channels, I think it would be a good idea to improve the quality of the existing TV programmes.

Non spetta a me preparare i corsi. Piuttosto aspetto che il mio collega mi passi il materiale.

It's not up to me to prepare the courses. Rather I'm waiting for my colleague to give me the material.

Preferirei non riscrivere questo capitolo, tuttavia lo farò se proprio insisti.

I would prefer not to rewrite this chapter, however I will do it if you insist.

30.2.5 Confirmation and affirmation

Difficult to translate into English, anzi can mean ‘on the contrary’ but can also express confirmation of what has just been said:

Luisa era veramente brava. Anzi, era la studentessa più brava della classe.

Luisa was really clever. In fact she was the cleverest student in the class.

Il turismo non è ancora molto sviluppato, anzi le infrastrutture sono praticamente inesistenti.

Tourism isn't very developed yet; in fact the infrastructures are almost non-existent.

The following are conjunctions and discourse markers that affirm what has just been said or written (declarative conjunctions):

Le scoperte scientifiche possono essere anche pericolose cioè possono avere consequenze negative — basta pensare alla bomba atomica.

Scientific discoveries can even be dangerous, in other words they can have negative consequences — one need only think of the atomic bomb.

Gli studenti laureati devono imparare ad essere autonomi, infatti l'autonomia è la qualità più importante per un ricercatore.

Graduate students must learn to be independent, in fact independence is the most important quality for a researcher.

30.2.6 Conclusion, results

For details of conclusive conjunctions such as allora ‘and so’, dunque ‘therefore’, per cui ‘and so’ and quindi ‘therefore’, which express conclusion, result or consequence, see 35.2.

30.3 Combining statements of unequal importance

When there are two messages that are not of equal importance, one message usually expresses a main event or action, while the other expresses an action or event linked to it. The main action or event is normally expressed by a main clause (one that can stand on its own without another clause) while the linked action or event is expressed by a clause that cannot stand on its own but is dependent on or subordinate to the main clause. There are many types of dependent clauses, for example relative clauses, clauses of purpose, clauses of reason, all of which are illustrated in other chapters of Section IV (see also 30.5).

30.4 Setting events in a time context

30.4.1 Simple time context

When facts or events are related only to the moment of speaking or writing, the time context is simple. Section I gives examples of simple time contexts: the present (Chapter 12); the past (Chapter 13); the future (Chapter 14). Usually the verb tense alone (present, past, future) is enough to indicate the time when the action took place, although the sentence sometimes includes a more specific marker of time (phrase, adverb or noun group):

(Oggi) è il compleanno di Marta.

(Today) it is Marta's birthday.

Siamo andati a Londra (la settimana scorsa).

We went to London (last week).

(L'anno prossimo) ci trasferiremo negli Stati Uniti.

(Next year) we will be moving to the USA.

30.4.2 Complex time context

In a complex sentence, where two or more messages are combined, the verbs used are closely interlinked in a relationship of time, which determines the mood and tense of the verbs used. When the sentence is composed of main clause and dependent clause, the choice of verb mood and tense in the dependent clause is determined by the verb in the main clause. Italian has a set of ‘rules’ known as the concordanza dei tempi (’sequence of tenses’) which demonstrate this, shown in Appendix V and illustrated below in 30.5. These are only guidelines, and how rigidly they are applied depends on the type of dependent clause; they are particularly important when the dependent clause acts as the object of a verb (for example, Spero che tu possa venire; lui dice che partiranno più tardi) or as its subject (as in Mi sembra assurdo che tu debba fare il lavoro della segretaria). In 30.5, therefore, we look only at this type of dependent clause, often known as noun clauses. You will meet the sequence of tenses again in Chapter 31, in the context of reported or indirect speech. In Appendix V, we summarise all the ‘rules’ of the sequence of tenses, in easy-to-read table form.

The choice of verb mood and tense used depends on the relationship between the event or act referred to and the moment of speaking or writing: this may be the same time context (where the event or action takes place at the same time as the moment of writing or speaking), an earlier time context (where the event or action takes place in the past in relation to the moment of speaking or writing) or a later time context (where the event or action takes place in the future in relation to the moment of speaking or writing).

30.5 Sequence of tenses

Here we look at the way in which the sequence of tenses works in practice. We take as a starting point the different tenses used in the main clause (present, past or future), then look at each of the different time contexts (same, earlier, later) in turn. Focusing on noun clauses (which are either the subject or the object of the main verb), we see how the sequence of tenses works for verbs such as dire, sapere which are normally followed by a verb in the indicative mood, and also how it works for verbs such as credere, pensare, sembrare, volere which are normally followed by a verb in the subjunctive. (See also Appendix V.)

30.5.1 Main verb in present tense

When the verb in the main clause is in the present tense (present indicative, present conditional), the verb in the dependent clause can be in any of the moods or tenses shown in the tables below, depending on the time context (same, earlier, later) and on whether the verb normally takes the indicative or the subjunctive.

Same time context

Speaking about events or actions taking place at the same time as the moment of speaking or writing:

The indicative mood (see 2.2.2) expresses certainty or objectivity:

I passeggeri sanno che devono arrivare due ore prima della partenza.

Passengers know they have to arrive two hours before departure time.

The conditional mood (see 2.2.11) is often used to indicate an unconfirmed report (see also 31.4.1). Italian uses the present conditional, where English would use simply the present indicative:

Gli esperti dicono che la situazione economica sarebbe più grave di quanto sembra.

The experts say that the economic situation is more serious than it seems.

The subjunctive mood (see 2.2.14–15) indicates a relationship of uncertainty or subjectivity and is always used after certain verbs, for example verbs expressing an opinion, such as pensare, sembrare, or wishing or hoping, such as chiedere, volere, sperare. In accordance with the sequence of tenses shown above, either present subjunctive (see 2.2.16) or imperfect subjunctive (see 2.2.18) can be used:

Pare che mio cugino sia pronto a partire.

It seems my cousin is ready to leave.

Vorrei che tu fossi meno prepotente.

I wish you were less domineering.

Earlier time context

Speaking about events or actions which took place in the past in relation to the moment of speaking or writing:

The indicative mood (see 2.2.2) describes an action or event in the past and expresses a fact or certainty. After a main verb in the present tense, any of the past tenses (imperfect, perfect, past definite or pluperfect) can be used in the dependent clause:

Sappiamo che migliaia di nordafricani hanno perso la vita nel tentativo di raggiungere le coste europee.

We know that thousands of North Africans have lost their lives trying to reach the European coasts.

A scuola ci insegnano che gli antichi romani costruirono ponti e strade su tutto il loro territorio.

At school they teach us that the ancient Romans built bridges and roads throughout their territory.

Mia madre sa che mio fratello fumava di nascosto.

My mother knows that my brother smoked in secret.

The past conditional (see 2.2.13) is often used to indicate a report which has not been confirmed (expressed in English by a simple past indicative, sometimes with a caveat or disclaimer such as ‘apparently’):

I giornali dicono che Berlusconi avrebbe organizzato molte feste anche alla sua villa privata.

The newspapers say that Berlusconi (apparently) organized lots of parties at his private villa too.

The subjunctive mood (see 2.2.14–15) is used after verbs such as pensare, sembrare, etc. to express uncertainty; either perfect or imperfect subjunctive are used to talk about events or actions which took place in the past but the pluperfect subjunctive can also be used, as shown in the third example:

Sembra che la regina abbia voluto incontrare i responsabili del progetto.

It seems the queen wanted to meet those responsible for the project.

Penso che da piccolo mio fratello mangiasse solo la pasta.

I think my brother only ate pasta when he was little.

Vorrei che mio marito mi avesse chiamato prima di decidere.

I wish that my husband had called me before taking a decision.

Later time context

Speaking about events or actions taking place in the future in relation to the moment of speaking or writing:

The indicative mood (see 2.2.2) used to talk about future events expresses a fact or certainty. The example below uses the future indicative (see 2.2.9):

Non mi vuole dire quanto costerà.

He doesn't want to tell me how much it will cost.

The present tense (see 2.2.3) can also be used, especially in less formal language, when talking of the very near and immediate future, and when using a marker of future time such as domani:

Mi spiega che suo figlio arriva domani.

She explains to me that her son is arriving tomorrow.

The conditional mood (see 2.2.11) is used when it is not yet certain that the event or action will take place. The example below uses the present conditional:

Penso che mia madre sarebbe disposta a fare la baby sitter sabato sera.

I think that my mother would be willing to babysit on Saturday evening.

The subjunctive mood (see 2.2.14–15) is used where there is more uncertainty about whether the statement is true or whether the event will take place. This example uses the present tense of the subjunctive (the subjunctive does not have a future tense):

Molti italiani sperano che il Presidente del Consiglio si dimetta anche prima delle elezioni.

Many Italians hope that the Prime Minister will resign even before the elections.

30.5.2 Main verb in past tense

Same time context

Speaking about events or actions taking place in the same time context as the moment of speaking or writing:

Giacomo mi ha detto che Stefano è sposato. (implies fact or certainty)

Giacomo told me that Stefano is married.

Giacomo mi ha detto che Stefano era sposato. (implies fact or certainty)

Giacomo told me that Stefano was married.

Pensavo che Stefano fosse sposato. (implies uncertainty)

I thought Stefano was married.

Earlier time context

Speaking about events or actions which took place in the past in relation to the moment of speaking or writing:

The indicative mood (see 2.2.2) is used to recount a fact or objective statement:

Il direttore ha rivelato che almeno 30 milioni di euro erano spariti dal conto.

The manager revealed that at least 30 million euros had disappeared from the account.

The subjunctive mood (see 2.2.14ȓ15) is used after certain verbs which require it:

Il cameriere attendeva che avessimo finito di mangiare prima di portare il conto.

The waiter was waiting until we had finished eating before bringing the bill.

Later time context

Speaking about events or actions taking place in the future in relation to the moment of speaking or writing:

If the events still have to take place, the future indicative is used, even when the verb depends on a main clause in a past tense:

Mia mamma mi ha promesso che verrà a trovarmi domani mattina.

My mother has promised me that she will come to see me tomorrow morning.

The past conditional (see 2.2.13) is used when the events will already have taken place (or not) at the moment of speaking/writing:

Il Presidente ha dichiarato che avrebbe posto il veto a una decisione del Congresso in favore dell'abolizione dell'embargo.

The President declared that he would impose a veto if Congress were to decide to lift the embargo.

In colloquial Italian, the past conditional is sometimes replaced by the imperfect indicative:

Mia mamma mi aveva promesso (mi ha promesso) che sarebbe venuta a trovarmi ieri sera.

Mia mamma mi aveva promesso che veniva a trovarmi ieri sera.

My mother had promised me that she would come to see me yesterday evening.

30.5.3 Main verb in future tense

The future tense is far less commonly used than the present tense, in Italian. In fact there is very little difference between sentences where the main clause has a verb in the present tense (see 30.5.1) and those where the main clause has a verb in the future tense, as shown below.

Same time context

Talking about events or actions taking place in the same time context:

The future indicative (see 2.2.9) is used when an outcome is definite:

Dirò che arriverai alle 9 di sera.

I will say that you will get here at 9 o'clock in the evening.

The present conditional (see 2.2.12) is used when the outcome is possible but not definite:

Le dirò che sarebbe meglio lavorare in gruppo.

I'll tell her that it would be better to work in a team.

The present subjunctive (see 2.2.16) is used after certain verbs that require it, for example verbs of hoping, wishing, requesting and ordering:

La manager chiederà che le cameriere puliscano le camere prima di mezzogiorno.

The manager will ask the maids to clean the bedrooms before midday.

Earlier time context

Talking about events or actions which took place in the past in relation to the moment of speaking or writing:

Later time context

Talking about events or actions taking place in the future in relation to the moment of speaking or writing:

The future indicative (see 2.2.9) is used in a more formal context. Otherwise the present tense can be used here, just as it is when it is in the main clause not the dependent clause:

Gli comunicheremo che dovrà pagare entro una settimana.

We'll inform him that he will have to pay within one week.

The present conditional (see 2.2.11) is used when a condition is implied:

Gli dirò che verremmo molto volentieri (se avessimo tempo).

I will tell him that we would come very willingly (if we had time).

Since there is no future subjunctive, the present subjunctive (see 2.2.16) can be used after those verbs that require the subjunctive, for example verbs of hoping, wishing, requesting and ordering:

Penserà che domani non ci siano problemi di traffico.

30.6 Infinitives and gerunds

In this section, we look at how gerunds (see 2.2.23–25) and infinitives (see 2.2.1) can also be used to complement main verbs.

30.6.1 Dependent clauses using infinitive or gerund

Both the infinitive (present or past) and the gerund (present or past) can be used to express actions and situations in a dependent clause, whatever the tense and mood of the main verb. You can only use the infinitive or the gerund when the grammatical subject of the dependent clause is the same as that of the verb in the main clause, as in the examples below.

Infinitive (present)

Cerco di risparmiare soldi per andare in vacanza a luglio.

I'm trying to save money to go on holiday in July.

Infinitive (past)

In the example below, Italian uses the past infinitive, while English uses the gerund.

Dopo aver lavorato tutto l'anno, ora posso andare in vacanza!

After working all year, now I can go on holiday!

Gerund (present)

Risparmiando soldi sulla casa posso permettermi di andare in vacanza.

By saving money on the house, I can go on holiday.

Gerund (past)

Avendo risparmiato soldi, posso andare in vacanza!

Having saved some money, I can go on holiday!

30.6.2 Dependent clauses using che

If the grammatical subject of the main clause is different from that of the dependent clause, then you cannot use a dependent gerund or infinitive but have to use a clause introduced by che or other conjunction. Here are some examples based on those in 30.6.1 above, with the different grammatical subjects in bold in the English sentences:

Cerco di risparmiare soldi in modo che possiamo permetterci una vacanza.

I try and save money so that we can afford a holiday.

Se risparmio soldi questo mese, potremo permetterci di andare in vacanza.

If I save money this month, we will be able to afford to go on holiday.

30.6.3 Contrast with use of gerund and infinitive in English

Many learners make the mistake of trying to translate an English sentence directly into Italian. But because English and Italian have very different sentence structures, this doesn't always work. One example of this is the way in which the gerunds and infinitives are used.

Infinitive (present/past)

Where Italian uses a past infinitive, English can use a gerund:

Dopo aver studiato tutto l'anno, ora posso rilassarmi.

After studying all year, now I can relax.

Gerund (present)

While English can use a preposition (for example, ‘by, on’) with the gerund form, Italian can't. The ‘by’ or ‘on’ is implicit in the Italian gerund and does not need to be added:

Vedendo arrivare mio cugino, sono andata ad aprire la porta.

On seeing my cousin arrive, I went to open the door.

Gerund, infinitive or che clause

English often uses a gerund form (-ing) after verbs such as ‘seeing, hearing’. In Italian you cannot use the gerund form after verbs such as sentire, vedere. You have to use either the infinitive or else a che clause with a finite verb:

All'alba sentivo gli uccelli che cantavano.

All'alba sentivo cantare gli uccelli.

At dawn I used to hear the birds singing.

Alle quattro di pomeriggio, vedevo i bambini che uscivano dalla scuola.

Alle quattro di pomeriggio, vedevo uscire i bambini dalla scuola.

At four o'clock in the afternoon, I saw the children coming out of school.

30.6.4 Examples from the press

The examples here show how the gerund and the infinitive can be used where the grammatical subject of both actions or events is the same:

Example 1

This first press extract uses the past infinitive (per aver identificato):

Nel 1962, lo scienziato inglese Francis Crick, è stato insignito del premio Nobel per la medicina, insieme a James Watson, per avere identificato la struttura a doppia elica del Dna.

In 1962 the English scientist Francis Crick was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine, along with James Watson, for having identified the double helix structure of DNA.

Example 2

In this second press extract, there is a succession of dependent present infinitives (a prendere, per uscire, a non riuscire, per andare in vacanza, comprarmi vestiti, andare a cena). The past infinitive (aver fatto) refers to a past action or non-action. The gerunds (lavorando, limitandomi, guadagnando) provide information which complements the main verb (for example the means by which something was done) by expressing actions or events that take place in the same time context as the main event. The extract ends with a conditional sentence where the condition is expressed by an imperfect subjunctive (se tornassi) and the possible outcome is described by a present conditional (i risultati sarebbero gli stessi). Look at how all these verbs work together in the text:

Vivere con 988 euro al mese

Vivo da sola, in Italia, da circa 3 anni. Da gennaio, lavorando con contratto Co.Co. Co, senza aver fatto un singolo giorno di ferie, riesco a prendere circa 988 euro al mese. Lavoro 8–9 ore per 5 o 6 giorni a settimana, non ho tempo e soldi per uscire, sono sempre stanca e continuo a non riuscire a mettere da parte un centesimo per andare in vacanza, comprarmi vestiti, andare a cena fuori. Se tornassi a vivere con mamma e papà, limitandomi a fare qualche lavoretto saltuario, i risultati sarebbero esattamente gli stessi, guadagnando addirittura qualcosa in tempo libero e salute.

(Adapted from letter to ‘Italians’ by Beppe Severgnini, Corriere della Sera online)

Living on 988 euros a month

I have been living on my own, in Italy, for about 3 years. Since January, working on a temporary contract, without having taken a single day's holiday, I've managed to take home about 988 euros a month. I work 8–9 hours for 5–6 days a week, I haven't got the time or money to go out, am always tired, and am still unable to set aside a single penny to go on holiday, buy myself clothes, or eat out. If I went back to mum and dad, restricting myself to the odd temporary job, the result would be exactly the same, gaining something, even, in terms of my free time and my health.

30.7 Relationship of tenses in complex texts

Here we look at some extracts from the media which illustrate the way in which different time contexts are handled in current journalistic Italian and the way in which tenses relate to one another in complex texts. In real life examples, the link between main and dependent clauses is not always obvious. Some of the sentences contain only main clauses, while sometimes the main verb is implied but not stated. The same basic ‘rules’ of the sequence of tenses seen in 30.5, however, still apply. In this section, the examples are arranged by time context (present, past, future), not by the tense used in the main clause.

30.7.1 Present time context

Example 1

This article about the ‘new homeless’ shows how present indicative verb forms (see 2.2.3) are used in the main clauses (vivono, si incontrano, troviamo, non possono permettersi), and in a series of dependent relative clauses (che non ce la fanno, che non riescono, che devono passare) to express events happening in the same time context (present). A gerund (see 2.2.24) is used to express concession (pur avendo), while another gerund expresses the reason behind the main statement (avendo).

L'identikit dei nuovi senzatetto

Padri separati e anziani soli

Padri separati, anziani con la pensione minima, giovani immigrati in cerca di lavoro, working poor, interi nuclei familiari. È l'identikit dei nuovi senzatetto: vivono nelle grandi città, ma si incontrano anche in provincia. Oltre agli “storici” homeless (italiani, tra i 45 ed i 65 anni, spesso con problemi psichiatrici o di alcolismo o tossicodi-pendenza) troviamo giovani stranieri in cerca di un'occupazione, anziani che non ce la fanno più con la sola pensione a far fronte a tutte le spese, working poor che, pur avendo un lavoro, non riescono a farcela ad arrivare a fine mese, uomini e padri separati che devono passare gli alimenti alla moglie e ai figli e avendo solo un reddito modesto non possono permettersi una casa propria.

(http://www.repubblica.it/solidarieta/immigrazione/2012/01/20/news/polchi_povert-28493875/, retrieved 1 March 2012)

Separated fathers, old people with the minimum pension, young immigrants in search of work, the working poor, entire family groups. This is the profile of the new homeless: they live in the big cities, but you can find them in the provinces too. As well as the ‘traditional’ homeless (Italians between the ages of 45 and 65, often with psychiatric problems or problems of alcoholism or drug addiction), we find young foreigners in search of work, old people who find that their pension alone can't cover all their expenditure, working poor who, despite having a job, can't make it to the end of the month, separated men and fathers who have to pay maintenance for their wives and children and with just one modest income, can't afford a house of their own.

Example 2

This text, about a possible future event involving the computer company Apple, shows how the present conditional (see also 2.2.11) is used in Italian to express an unconfirmed report. It would be expressed in English by a plain present indicative:

Apple starebbe pianificando un evento per gennaio

Secondo quanto riporta TechCrunch, Apple starebbe pianificando un'evento per gennaio, focalizzato su possibili miglioramenti che riguarderebbero la distribuzione di media attraverso i suoi canali. L'evento dovrebbe essere tenuto da Eddy Cue, Senior Vice President of Internet Service e Software. Come riportato durante l'evento non dovrebbe essere annunciato nessun tipo di nuovo hardware. Restiamo in attesa di una conferma da parte di Apple, ed eventualmente della data e del luogo in cui dovrebbe tenersi l'evento; New York è data come la possibile location.

According to TechCrunch, Apple is planning an event in January, focusing on possible upgrades which relate to the distribution of media through its channels. The event is to be held apparently by Eddy Cue, Senior Vice President of Internet Service and Software. According to the report, no new hardware should be announced during the event. We await confirmation from Apple, and if possible the date and place where the event will take place. New York has been given as a possible location.

30.7.2 Past time context

Example 1

In this eyewitness account by two survivors from the sinking of the Costa Concordia off the island of Giglio (Tuscany), the actions or events all take place in the same time context, the past. Since this is an interview rather than just a third person account, however, the text is interspersed with references to the present time (Francesca racconta). The first two linked sentences express the background to this tragedy (erano passeggeri, facevano parte) using the imperfetto (see 2.2.4), while the next sentence expresses an action (sono tornati), using the passato prossimo (see 2.2.5), but also expresses the survivors' present condition (stanno bene, vogliono raccontare) using the present tense (see 2.2.3). In the next sentences there is a mix of imperfetto describing the background (l'equipaggio non parlava italiano, c'erano problemi di comunicazione) and passato prossimo to describe actions and events (ci hanno diviso, la gente non ci ha fatto passare, abbiamo tentato):

Enrico e Francesca erano passeggeri della Costa Concordia affondata vicino all'isola del Giglio; facevano parte di una comitiva di nove persone, tutte di Anacapri, tra loro anche tre bambini di un anno. Sono già tornati tutti a casa, e per fortuna stanno bene ma vogliono raccontare la loro esperienza personale. “La maggior parte dell'equipaggio non parlava italiano e c'erano problemi di comunicazione”. Francesca raccontala drammatica ricerca di una scialuppa per salvarsi. “Ci hanno diviso dagli altri nostri amici con i bambini, perché la genté non ci ha fatto passare avanti. Abbiamo tentato di prendere un'altra scialuppa, ma erarotta”.

(http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xnqkeo_costa-concordia-i-superstiti-abbandonati-a-noi-stessi-la-storia-di-enrico-e-francesca-di-anacapri_news, retrieved 1 March 2012)

Enrico and Francesca were passengers on the Costa Concordia which sank near the island of Giglio; they were part of a group of nine people, all from Anacapri, with three one-year-old children amongst them. They have all gone back home already, and luckily are all fine, but they want to talk about their own personal experience. ‘Most of the crew didn't speak Italian and there were communication problems.’ Francesca talks about the dramatic search for a lifeboat to escape on. ‘We got separated from our other friends with children, because people wouldn't let us get past. We tried to take another lifeboat, but it was broken.’

Example 2

This passage is also about the sinking of the Costa Concordia and in particular a video clip which shows that the ship stayed upright for two hours, so all the passengers could have been saved, if the captain had raised the alarm straightaway. The references to the video clip are in the present tense (segna, dimostra), and the statement that the Guardia di Finanza motor launch filmed it (lo ha realizzato) is therefore in the passato prossimo, a past tense which has a close relationship to the present. The main action or event, however, is in the passato remoto (see 2.2.6) and describes what the ship did (rimase). There is a past infinitive (see 2.2.1) which refers to the grammatical subject, the motor launch (dopo aver captato). Finally there is a conditional sentence which uses a verb in the past conditional (see 2.2.13) to say what would have happened (avrebbe consentito) and a pluperfect subjunctive (see 2.2.19) for the ‘if’ clause (se l'ordine di sbarco fosse stato dato per tempo):

Il filmato segna l'ora delle 22,30: ovvero 45 minuti dopo l'impatto della Concordia con gli scogli. Lo ha realizzato una motovedetta della Guardia di Finanza, la prima ad arrivare vicino alla nave, dopo aver captato le perplessità della Guardia Costiera di Livorno, in contatto radio con la plancia della Concordia. E dimostra una cosa semplicissima: la nave per quasi due ore rimase quasi senza inclinazioni. Se l'ordine di sbarco fosse stato dato per tempo, avrebbe consentito di utilizzare tutte le scialuppe di salvataggio. E soprattutto, avrebbe consentito di portare in salvo davvero tutti i passeggeri e il personale di bordo.

The film clip shows the time 22.30: 45 minutes after the Costa Concordia hit the rocks. It was filmed by the motor launch of the Guardia di Finanza, the first to reach the ship, after picking up the concerns expressed by the Livorno coastguard, who were in radio contact with the bridge of the Costa Concordia. And (the film clip) demonstrates a simple fact: for almost two hours the ship did not tilt. If the order to evacuate had been given in time, it would have allowed (the crew) to use all the lifeboats. And, more importantly, it would have allowed them to get all the passengers and crew to safety.

30.7.3 Future time context

A variety of verb moods and tenses can be used to express related actions taking place in the future time context. These include the present indicative, the future indicative, the present conditional and the present subjunctive.

Example 1

This passage on possible travel problems caused by heavy snow uses a combination of future indicative (see 2.2.9), to say what will happen (saranno), and present conditional (see 2.2.11), to say what should or should not happen (dovrebbe):

4 febbraio 2012 22:00
Continua a nevicare ma gli aeroporti di Heathrow, Stansted e Gatwick sono sempre aperti. La neve dovrebbe continuare a cadere tutta la notte e si prevede che molti voli saranno cancellati o in ritardo.

5 febbraio 2012 9:00
Non dovrebbe nevicare più per oggi. L'aeroporto di Stansted è aperto ma ci saranno ritardi e forse voli cancellati.

(Adapted from www.londranews.com, retrieved 14 February 2012)

4 February 2012, 22.00
It is still snowing but the airports of Heathrow, Stansted and Gatwick are still open. The snow is expected to continue to fall all night and it is expected that many flights will be cancelled or delayed.

5 February 2012, 9.00
There should be no more snow today. The airport of Stansted is open but there will be delays and perhaps cancelled flights.

Example 2

In this next example, about the summer ‘exodus’ from the cities, there is a series of verbs in the future tense (see 2.2.9) in main clauses (si metteranno, sarà, saranno, partirà), in a dependent relative clause (che oggi raggiungerà) and in a dependent clause expressing reason (perché anche i treni risulteranno strapieni).

È' iniziato ieri pomeriggio il grande esodo estivo, che oggi raggiungerà il suo apice. Secondo una prima stima circa 11 milioni di italiani si metteranno al volante per raggiungere le località di vacanza e anche sulle autostrade liguri il traffico sarà notevole, soprattutto nelle ore di punta. Ma non saranno solo le strade e le autostrade ad essere prese d'assalto, perché anche i treni risulteranno strapieni. Secondo Ferrovie dello Stato, infatti, oltre un milione di persone partirà in treno.

(http://www.genova24.it/2011/07/genova-e-iniziato-il-grade-esodo-giornata-da-bollino-nero-17258/, retrieved 14 February 2012)

The great summer exodus began yesterday afternoon, and will reach its peak today. According to an early estimate, around 11 million Italians will get behind the steering wheel to get to their holiday destination and on the motorways of Liguria too, the volume of traffic will be high, especially in the peak hours. But it won't only be the roads and motorways which are under siege, because the trains will be overcrowded as well. According to the State Railways, in fact, over a million people will set off by train.