Modern Italian Grammar: A Practical Guide, Third Edition (2013)

Part B. Functions

V. Expanding the horizons

42. Written communication

42.1 Introduction

In this chapter we look at different forms of written communication and see how the grammar structures used vary according to the type of communication. We look at business correspondence, but also give some pointers for writing an essay or report. We also examine the types of written language you may come across in everyday life in Italy: bureaucratic language, scientific and technical language, and journalistic language. Lastly, we also look at informal forms of written communication such as emails and SMS.

42.2 Business letters

Business letters are very important in the world of commerce, even more so now that e-mails have become the accepted means of communication, replacing the telephone call. Faxes, which have almost disappeared in many European countries, are still an important means of communication in some small Italian businesses such as hotels. They follow the same style as letters but often use a cover sheet detailing the date, fax number and the number of pages being transmitted.

There is a set form for business letters in Italian, which tend to be more formal than their English equivalent. Here we look at just a few important features of letters. If you regularly need to send business letters in Italian, you should purchase one of the many books on corrispondenza commerciale (business correspondence) available on the market. Here we give just a few important points regarding the layout of a business letter.

42.2.1 Date

The name of the town or city is indicated top right, followed by the day (in figures), the month (written in full) and the year:

Milano, 14 ottobre 2012

This is often abbreviated in faxes and less formal letters to Milano, 14/10/12.

42.2.2 The recipient/addressee

The name and address of the recipient can be written either on the left or on the right. On the first line of the letter is the name of the addressee, with the appropriate title in full or in abbreviated form. On the second line is the street, with street number following it; on the third line, the CAP (Codice Avviamento Postale or postcode), followed by the name of the town or city. If the town is not the provincial capital, you may add in brackets the abbreviation for the province. Here is an example:

Egregio Dott. Augusto Parente

Via G. Verdi, 42

43035 FELINO (PR)

You may address a specific person within a company:

Ing. Carlo Biancardi

Direttore Tecnico

Metaldomus

When replying to an Italian business letter, the title of the addressee must be used even if he/she hasn't used it when signing.

When writing to a company, the name of the company or organisation is preceded by the abbreviation Spett. (spettabile ‘worthy of respect’):

Spett.Bianchi S.p.A.^†

or

Spett. Ditta Bianchi S.p.A.

NOTE ^† Società per Azioni or PLC.

The name of the office or department can be given either after the company name:

Spett.Bianchi S.p.A.

Ufficio Contabilità

or as the addressee:

Spett. Ufficio Marketing

Bianchi S.p.A.

If you want to mark the letter for the attention of someone specific (English ‘FAO’) you can use:

Alla cortese attenzione del Sig. Di Giacomo

Alla cortese attenzione dell'Amministratore Delegato

42.2.3 Academic, honorary and other titles

For a fuller discussion on when and how to use professional titles, see 20.9. Professional qualifications are not generally used to address people in English, with the exception of ‘Doctor’, but they are always used in Italy where it is normal to address people as Ingegnere, Avvocato both in speaking and in writing:

NOTE When you don't know whether a woman is married or not, you should address her as Sig.a (signora).

If you know the name of the person, use their name and title:

Gentile Signora Bianchi, Egregio Signor Rossi

If you don't know their name, use their title only:

Egregio Direttore

Usually Egregio (abbreviated Egr.) is used for a man, Gentile (abbreviated Gent.) for a woman:

Egregio Professore, Egregio Dottore, Egregio Signore

Gentile Signora, Gentile Dottoressa, Gentile Professoressa

42.2.4 References

You may find the following references on a business letter:

The word Oggetto indicates what the letter or fax is about:

Oggetto: Richiesta di campione, prezzi e condizioni di pagamento.

Re: Request for samples, prices and terms of payment.

42.2.5 Salutation (‘Dear …’)

When addressing a letter to a company or organisation, no salutation is used. The name is given at the top of the letter along with the address, Egregio, Gentile, etc. (see 42.2.3) and is not repeated at the beginning of the letter.

42.2.6 Some common abbreviations in commercial letters

42.2.7 opening and closing phrases

In formal correspondence, you may use either the voi form, if addressing the company, or the Lei form, if addressing one person. The pronouns and possessives will correspond, with vostro for the voi form and Suo for the Lei form:

Opening:

In risposta alla vostra/Sua (lettera) …

In reply to your letter …

Riguardo alla vostra/Sua (lettera) …

With regard to your letter …

In riferimento all vostra/Sua del 10 c.m.…

With reference to your letter of the 10th of this month …

Abbiamo il piacere di informarvi/informarLa …

We have the pleasure to inform you …

Vi/Le comunichiamo che …

We inform you that …

Ci dispiace dovervi/doverLa informare …

We are sorry to have to inform you …

Closing:

Speriamo in una vostra/Sua sollecita risposta …

We look forward to a speedy reply …

In attesa di una vostra/Sua risposta …

Awaiting your reply …

… siamo a vostra/Sua disposizione …

… we are at your disposal …

Vi/La salutiamo distintamente

Yours faithfully

42.2.8 Signature

The signature at the bottom indicates the name and position of the writer. The actual signature is generally handwritten. The abbreviation p indicates that the person has been authorised to write on behalf of someone else.

42.3 Informal written communication

The popularity of more direct forms of communication such as email or SMS is encouraging the use of a simpler, more accessible language more akin to the spoken language. Here we look at some key features of emails and SMS.

42.3.1 Emails

Emailing (la posta elettronica) is now commonly used for both business and social communication. An email (un'email or una mail) can vary in formality, in the same way as letters. Generally, in emails people take less care over spelling and are more inclined to use an informal register, often more akin to spoken Italian. As seen in the email below, for example, this means using indicative rather than subjunctive verb forms (non so se ti è mai arrivato), disconnected clauses, informally phrased questions, abbreviations, numbers not written out (1 settimana), imperative forms (fatti viva):

Ciao Carla! sono secoli che non so niente di te. Ti avevo spedito un email, non so se ti è mai arrivato, rispondimi per vedere se è giusto l'indirizzo. Qui tutto normale (il che è tanto), siamo appena stati una settimana in Spagna, sulla spiaggia al sole, molto bello, lontano dal freddo. Cosa fate a Pasqua? Non avete voglia di venire a trovarci in Toscana? Avete già altri piani? Noi andremo 1 settimana. Fatti viva, bacioni.

Hi Carla! It's ages since I've heard anything from you. I had sent you an email, I don't know if you ever got it, answer my email so I can see if the address is correct. Here everything's normal (which is saying something), we have just been a week in Spain, on the beach in the sunshine, really nice, far from the cold. What are you doing at Easter? Don't you want to come and see us in Tuscany? Have you already got other plans? We'll go there for a week. Get in touch, love.

Sometimes however an email can take the place of a formal or official letter and in this case the opening and closing phrases will be very similar to those used in a letter (see 42.2).

42.3.2 SMS (text messages)

The language of text messages (un SMS or un messaggino) on mobile phones is very similar to that of newspaper headlines, with verbs omitted, prepositions omitted and participles or adjectives used on their own. Here are some real life examples of SMS (text messages) received on a mobile phone. The ‘normal’ non-abbreviated version of each message is given underneath. In the English translation, the omitted words are shown in brackets:

Bene. Contenta festeggiato anche con te. Baci. Torna presto.

(Bene. Sono contenta di aver festeggiato anche con te. Baci. Torna presto.)

Good. Glad (to have) celebrated with you too. Kisses. Come back soon.

Individuata giacca.

(La giacca è stata individuata.)

(The) jacket (has been) identified.

Fatto contratto nuova casa.

(Ho fatto il contratto per la nuova casa.)

(I have) done the contract for the new house.

Causa sciopero controllori di volo, arrivo domani mattina.

(A causa di uno sciopero dei controlli di volo, arrivo domani mattina.)

Because of an air traffic controllers' strike, I'll get there tomorrow morning.

As in English, there is a whole language made up of abbreviations and ‘codes’ you can use to speed up the process of messaging; these are especially popular with the under-21s. Here are just a few examples:

Here are a couple of examples of SMS using abbreviations and codes:

Grazie ancora a te e a Massimo x ieri sera! 1 bella cena!

Thanks again to you and to Massimo for yesterday evening! A lovely dinner!

Dimmi quando 6 libera!

Tell me when you are free!

42.4 Extended writing: differences between English and Italian

One of the main differences between English and Italian writing is the length of the sentences. Whereas English writers — and readers! — place high value on the ability to write concisely and without excessive flourishes, Italian writers especially in political commentary or in academic writing feel the need to embellish simple structures and to construct a tissue of complex phrases. As a learner, you should not attempt to reproduce these but should gradually build on your basic writing skills, to transform the simple sentences that most beginners use into something more complex. The main features of extended writing on which to focus are:

•The use of coordinated clauses, linked by a conjunction or other discourse marker (see 30.2).

•The use of main and subordinate clauses, linked by appropriate conjunctions (see 30.3).

•The use of discourse markers appropriate to written Italian (see also 42.5).

•The use of a more appropriate lexis, rather than that of spoken Italian (see also 40.3).

When writing a longer text, it should be remembered that punctuation may be used in a different way from that used in English; for example the use of quote marks differs (see 31.2).

42.5 Writing essays, making connections

Writing an essay tests your ability to link ideas in a language. All Italian children are taught at school to make a scaletta or essay plan. This is also good practice for learners of Italian, who have to find a way of making their essay sound fluent and natural. Italians tend to use longer sentence structures than English writers and it is essential to practise the different ways in which clauses can be joined (see also Chapter 30). Sentences may be composed of coordinated clauses or subordinated clauses.

Depending on how the ideas in the essay link together, the subordinate clauses (see 30.3) may be relative clauses, or clauses of cause and effect, purpose, time or manner, which may be introduced by conjunctions (see Chapters 31–39). Alternatively, connecting words, for example coordinating conjunctions (see 30.2) and other discourse markers, can be used to link your ideas in the essay. The different types of clauses can be used to make or emphasise your points, to contrast with what has been said earlier, to explain something said earlier, and so on.

42.6 Reports

Transforming facts and figures into cohesive text is a skill often required in a work situation or in business. There are certain standard phrases and verbs that are used in compiling a report based on statistics, in addition to the connecting words already mentioned above. Here are a few.

Describing figures:

Si aggira intorno ai 60 milioni.

The figure is around 60 million.

Al censimento erano poco più di 150,000 persone.

At the census, there were a little over 150,000 people.

Percentages and proportions:

Circa i quattro quinti / i due terzi / un quarto / la metà

About four-fifths / two-thirds / a quarter / half

I lavoratori autonomi per il 37% investono in immobili.

37% of self-employed workers invest in property.

Il 27% ha un conto in banca.

27% have a bank account.

Pochi, meno del 20 per cento, hanno una seconda casa.

Few, less than 20 per cent, have a second home.

Una percentuale più o meno analoga è titolare di un conto in banca.

More or less the same percentage have a bank account.

Un reddito pari al 10%.

An income equal to 10%.

Lower than, higher than; more than, less than:

In comparisons, you can use the words superiore ‘higher than’, inferiore ‘lower than’, uguale ‘same as’, with reference to another category, to estimates or to the average:

Era superiore alla media.

It was greater than average.

Erano tremila in più di quanti si pensava.

They were 3,000 more than expected.

Sono il 2,5 per cento contro una media del 9,5%.

They are 2.5% against an average of 9.5%.

Hanno un reddito inferiore del 34% a quello dei lavoratori autonomi.

They have an income 34% lower than that of self-employed workers.

Un tasso di nascita inferiore alla media.

A birth rate lower than the average.

Meno della media.

Less than average.

La stragrande maggioranza.

The overwhelming majority.

Avoiding essere:

Various verbs can be used instead of essere:

Il reddito individuale media risulta / è risultato di 50.000 euro.

The average income is/was 50,000 euros.

L'aumento maggiore si registra / si è registrato nel settore bancario.

The greatest increase is/was in the banking sector.

La spesa in questo settore ha raggiunto i 10 milioni.

The expenditure in this sector reached 10 million.

Sempre in crescita si dimostra la spesa per le automobili.

Still growing is the expenditure on cars.

La crescita ha interessato sia gli alberghi che le pensioni.

The increase was seen both for hotels and for guest houses.

Other verbs used in report-writing:

Un reddito alto caratterizza il 16% delle famiglie italiane.

A high income is a feature of 16% of Italian families.

I generi alimentari occupano il posto più importante.

Foodstuffs occupy the most important position.

Le voci più importanti riguardano i beni di lusso.

The most important categories relate to luxury goods.

I dati si riferiscono al 2003.

The figures refer to 2003.

Where does the money go?

Su ogni 100 euro spesi per i generi alimentari, gli italiani ne hanno destinati in media 40 alla carne.

Out of every 100 euros spent on foodstuffs, Italians spent on average 40 euros on meat.

Alle spese per la salute è stato destinato il 5,5% del totale.

5.5% of the total was spent on health.

Nel 2006 i generi alimentari incidono soltanto per il 42%.

In 2006 foodstuffs account only for 42%.

Le voci ‘Alimentari’ e ‘Arredamento’ coprono nel 2011 il 43% delle spese totali.

The categories ‘Foodstuffs’ and ‘Furnishings’ cover in 2011 43% of total expenditure.

La spesa maggiore è andata ai beni alimentari.

The biggest expenditure went on foodstuffs.

Up or down?

La struttura dei consumi si è modificata notevolmente.

The structure of consumer expenditure has changed considerably.

Si è ridotta l'incidenza delle spese per l'alimentazione.

The proportion of expenditure on food has decreased.

È cresciuta del 18% la spesa per i beni di lusso.

The expenditure on luxury goods has grown by 18%.

Cresce dal 13 al 15% circa.

It is growing from 13 to 15% approximately.

Gli studenti sono aumentati; il numero di studenti è aumentato.

The students have increased; the number of students has increased.

Gli studenti sono diminuiti; il numero di studenti è diminuito.

The students have decreased; the number of students has decreased.

Order or position:

Ha battuto la spesa per …

It beat the expenditure on …

In testa è …

At the top (of the list) is …

In cima alla graduatoria …

At the top of the league table …

Al primo posto …

In first place …

Vince la montagna come meta turistica, con il 15% dei turisti stranieri.

The mountains win, as a tourist destination, with 15% of foreign tourists.

Seguiti da …

Followed by …

Comparison:

contro i 10.000 del 2010 …

compared to the 10,000 in 2010 …

contro il 39% del 2012 …

compared to 39% in 2012 …

paragonato a

compared to

La situazione è cambiata molto rispetto a dieci anni fa.

The situation has changed a lot compared to ten years ago.

La disoccupazione giovanile in Italia è alta in confronto ad altri paesi europei.

Youth unemployment in Italy is high compared to other European countries.

The interviewees, the Don't know's:

Gli intervistati

The interviewees

I “non so” sono il 10 per cento.

The ‘don't knows’ are 10 per cent.

According to:

Dalla ricerca i lavoratori dipendenti appaiono come scarsi risparmiatori.

From the study, it seems that paid employees are poor savers.

Ecco le sette categorie-tipo che emergono dalla ricerca.

Here are the seven categories which emerge from the study.

Stando ai risultati dell'indagine …

According to the results of the study …

L'indagine rivela …

The study reveals …

Risulta dalla tabella …

It emerges from the table …

Con riferimento (in riferimento) alle tabelle …

With reference to the tables …

In base ai dati (del 2012) …

According to the figures from 2012 …

Dati recenti indicano …

Recent figures indicate …

Secondo le rivelazioni del 2012 …

According to the findings of 2012 …

42.7 Bureaucratic language

Every day both Italians and foreign visitors are systematically confronted by the web of bureaucratic, highly technical and often mysterious language used by Italian public administration (and often by private enterprise as well) in order to provide the public with ‘information’.

The effect produced by this type of language is to make the average Italian feel like a defendant in a court of law, when in reality he/she is merely being given information as to where to stamp his/her bus or train ticket.

To illustrate this, we have chosen just one original example from the funicular station in Mergellina, Naples. Note the use of the si passivante in this official notice, Si informano i Signori Viaggiatori ‘The passengers are informed’, rather than the more normal Informiamo i Signori Viaggiatori ‘We inform the passengers’ or the passive form I Signori Viaggiatori sono informati ‘The passengers are informed’ (see Chapters 2 and 19, and also 40.5.2).

Si informano i Signori Viaggiatori che, ai sensi del regolamento, articolo 567 del 19/11/1973, essi devono munirsi di titolo di viaggio precedentemente all'ingresso sulle vetture della Funicolare. I titoli di viaggio vanno timbrati nelle apposite obliteratrici collocate nell'androne della Stazione.

The approximate translation is:

The esteemed passengers are informed that, as prescribed by the relevant ruling, clause 567, of 19/11/1973, travel documents must be purchased in advance of boarding the car-riages of the Funicular. The travel documents must be stamped in the specially provided obliterating machines, located in the entrance hall of the Station.

The same concept could perfectly well be expressed by a few simple words, perhaps with an arrow indicating where passengers should insert the tickets:

Or alternatively:

Individuals are also prone to using over-formal language when they have to deal with a formal situation. In particular the third person is often used referring to oneself, as though speaking of someone else, instead of using the first person ‘I’ form. This is done in applications, requests, declarations, and often in CVs addressed to an institution or public office, in order to stress the objectivity and impersonality of the information given. It is also done in juridical documents. In such cases the formula used is il sottoscritto (for men) or la sottoscritta (for women), literally ‘the undersigned’; all verbs used are in the third person. Vocabulary too tends to be formal.

42.8 Scientific and technical language

Another feature of today's written Italian, widespread in public administration, as well as in many professional areas (for example, medicine, finance, education), is the tendency to use a lavish sprinkling of obscure technical terminology. This applies not only to specialist texts or communication, but also to communications intended to provide information for the general public.

Although examples of this can be found in countries around the world, the extent to which the phenomenon has penetrated practically every area of life is perhaps unique to Italy. Road signs are one example; the ‘technical’ words are in italics:

Inizio carreggiata a traffico canalizzato. Preselezionare corsia.

Get in lane.

Another feature of scientific and technical language is the use of the passive form (see 19.2.4), a very common way to place less emphasis on the person who does something, and more on the action itself, or on its object. Here is an example:

La struttura a doppia elica del Dna fu scoperta da Watson e Crick.

The double helix structure of DNA was discovered by Watson and Crick.

42.9 Journalistic language

The language of the press is a mixture of styles. The ‘Cronaca’ section for example tends to use the Italian equivalent of the language of the British tabloid press, for example exaggeration and hyperbole, and a simplification of syntax in the headlines. In other sections, for example ‘Politica’, the language can be obscure and difficult to access, not only because of the more complex syntax but because of the ‘coded’ references, historical, mythical, geographical, etc., that pepper the text. Features of journalistic language include the following.

42.9.1 Use of headlines without whole verbs

Newspaper headlines are kept as short as possible and are often composed entirely of nouns, participles or adjectives, without a complete verb:

42.9.2 Use of the passive, si impersonale, si passivante

As seen in 2.1.10 and 19.2, the passive form of verbs is a very common way to place less emphasis on the person who does something, and more on the action itself, or on its object. It is therefore very common to use passive constructions whenever the formality of a statement requires an impersonal approach. An example of the passive used in an official notice has already been shown above (see 42.7).

Similarly, the si impersonale is often found in newspaper reports in phrases such as si dice, si comunica (see 2.1.12, 31.2).

42.9.3 Use of hyperbole and exaggerated language

Taking its cue from television, the press — and in particular the sports pages — uses hyperbole extensively. The style is intended to convey the excitement of the moment:

LONDRA — Finisce tra gli applausi l'ultima partita di Gianfranco Zola con la maglia del Chelsea. Un diluvio di applausi prima dell'incontro. E alla fine quando Zola è stato salutato da una vera e propria ovazione.

(Adapted from La Repubblica online, 8 August 2004)

London. The last match of Gianfranco Zola with the Chelsea strip on ends in applause. A flood of applause before the match. And again at the end when the crowd said goodbye to Zola with a real ovation.

Deportivo “galactico”, Milan horror- il mesto addio alla Champions

(Adapted from La Repubblica online, 7 April 2004)

A Deportivo team of superstars, and a shocking performance by Milan — the sad goodbye to the Champions League

Galactico originates from the Spanish galacticos used to describe very highly paid football players.

Hyperbole also extends to nouns and adjectives, where there is often a prefix such as arci-, iper-, stra-, super-, ultra-, or a suffix such as -issimo:

In tutto lo stadio soltanto due striscioni: “Chelsea contro il razzismo” e “Tolleranza zero al razzismo”, slogan appropriati per una partitissima “inglese”, dove gli stranieri in campo sono la stragrande maggioranza.

(Adapted from La Repubblica online, 25 March 2004)

In the whole stadium only two banners: ‘Chelsea against racism’ and ‘Zero tolerance for racism’, appropriate slogans for an English super-match, where the foreign players are the overwhelming majority.

Sette minuti di straordinario Milan cancellano dal campo il Deportivo La Coruna, sommerso da un supergol di Sheva.

(Adapted from La Repubblica online, 23 March 2004)

Seven minutes of Milan extra time wipe from the field Deportivo La Coruna, sunk by a supergoal from Sheva.

Adriano ha segnato un bellissimo gol.

(Adapted from La Repubblica online, 2 August 2004)

Adriano scored a truly beautiful goal.

42.9.4 Use of references and rhetorical devices

Far more than the British press, Italian newspapers, which were never intended for a mass market, make use of a coded language that can be difficult for even the Italian reader to access. This includes historical and literary references, understood only by an elite. Take this example from the press where Berlusconi makes a reference to a humiliating episode in Roman history, the Forche Caudine, where in 314 BC at Caudium, the defeated Roman army were forced to march naked and defenceless under the lances of the victors, the Sannites. Here the reference is used to describe how businessmen are always being squeezed into impossible situations with no way out.

… un imprenditore come me deve passare sotto continue forche caudine.

… a businessman like me is continuously forced into impossible situations.

(http://www.giornalettismo.com/archives/67990/berlusconi-difende-legge-bavaglio/, retrieved 19 March 2012)

People are also referred to by their titles or characteristics. For example, Berlusconi, the ex-Prime Minister of Italy, was referred to as il Cavaliere ‘the Cavalier’, a reference to an honorary award given for services to industry. In the same way, Giovanni Agnelli, then head of Fiat, was referred to as l'Avvocato ‘the lawyer’.

The press also makes use of metaphor, metonym, synecdoche and other rhetorical devices. For example the use of il carroccio to refer to the Lega Nord party is a reference to the cart drawn by oxen which in medieval times used to carry the standard of the comune (district) into battle. Similarly, Via delle Botteghe Oscure was the headquarters of the political party PDS (Partito Democratico della Sinistra) but was commonly used to refer to the party itself.

42.9.5 Use of foreign words

Another example of ‘coded’ language is the use of foreign words, in particular English words. Many of these are now so much an accepted part of the language that they are barely regarded as foreign. Examples include il ticket‘voucher’ or ‘amount payable for healthcare costs’, il budget ‘budget’, il welfare as in Ministero del Welfare. Most foreign words are masculine in gender and have no distinct plural form. Some are used in a different sense from the English original, for example il mobbing ‘bullying in the workplace’ or il footing ‘jogging’.

il mobbing sul posto di lavoro consiste in un comportamento ripetuto, irragionevole, rivolto contro un dipendente o un gruppo di dipendenti, tale da creare un rischio per la salute e la sicurezza.

(http://osha.europa.eu/it/publications/factsheets/23, retrieved 5 April 2012)

Bullying in the workplace consists of repeated, unreasonable behaviour, aimed at an employee or a group of employees, to the extent that it creates a risk for health and safety.

Il footing è praticato da persone di varie età e non richiede particolare attrezzatura.

Jogging is practised by people of various ages and doesn't require any particular equipment.

(http://www.lopinionista.it/notizia.php?id=687, retrieved 5 April 2012)